
koncepcija
Introduction
Chapter One: Civic Participation
and Political Integration
I. Goals of Civic Participation and Political
Integration
II. Overview of the Situation and Problems
1. Participation
2. Non-governmental Organisations
3. Repatriation, Migration and Co-operation
with Expatriates Abroad
III. Main Directions for Action
1. Participation
2. Activities of Non-governmental Organizations
in Improving the Environment
3. Repatriation, Migration and Co-operation
with Expatriates Abroad
Chapter Two: Social and Regional
Integration of Society
I. Aims of Social and Regional Integration
of Society
II. An Overview of the Situation and Problems
1. Social Integration
2. Regional Integration
III. Main directions for action
1. Social integration
2. Regional Integration
Chapter Three: Education,
Language, and Culture
I. Aims of the Integration of Society in the
Policies concerning Education, Language and Culture
II. Overview of the Situation and the Problems
1. Education
2. Language
3. Culture
III. Main directions for action
1. Education
2. Language
3. Culture
Chapter Four: Information
I. Goals to Improve Information
II. Overview of the Situation and the Problems
1. Mass Media
2. Support for Science
III. Main directions for action
1. Mass media
2. Directions of Research Work
Chapter Five: Mechanisms for Implementation
I. Aims
II. Overview of Situation and Problems
III Main Directions for Action
Conclusion
Introduction
Eight years have now passed since Latvia regained independence. Those
years have been tense and full of change. In the course of time, memories
of life under the Soviet regime have faded. The younger generation has
learned about the recent past only from history books and through the memories
of older generations.
Nevertheless, the past has not disappeared without a trace. In reality,
the period of independence has still been too short for Latvia to free
itself of the effects of fifty years of totalitarianism and occupation.
Institutions of state authority are mistrusted and people often feel alienated
from them. While a lack of respect towards law and order is a social consequence
of totalitarian rule, civic security is slowly developing in Latvia. Latvia
has inherited more than half a million Soviet era immigrants and their
descendants, many of whom have not yet become integrated into the Latvian
cultural and linguistic environment, and thus do not feel connected to
the Latvian state. This disconnect also exists to some degree among Latvian
citizens.
National development may be significantly hindered if alienation persists
between the individual and the state, between different parts of society,
and between the society and the state. Integration of society, therefore,
has become a matter of urgent necessity.
The Need for a National Programme on Integration of Society
Latvia’s future development requires a rational, politically balanced and
financially secure national program for the integration of society. Both
in domestic politics and foreign relations, the current situation demands
that the government and the society pay closer attention to the integration
process than has previously been the case. The previous, often ad hoc approach
to integration must be replaced by a goal-oriented national political strategy.
The national strategy should be based on:
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a comprehensive conception of how society will be integrated;
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a detailed programme for the integration of society;
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institutional restructuring;
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adequate funding.
The Meaning of Integration For integration of society to
take place, diverse groups within the society must reach understanding
among themselves and learn to work together in one single country. The
foundation for integration of society is loyalty to the state and awareness
that each individual’s future and personal well being are closely tied
to the future stability and security of the State of Latvia. Integration
is also based on a willingness to accept Latvian as the state language,
and respect for Latvian as well as minority languages and cultures.
Social integration and civic participation are part of the process,
which will shape the future of Latvia. Changes of the attitude in residents
toward the state and toward one another are foreseen in the context of
this process.
The goal of integration is to form a democratic, consolidated
civil society, founded on shared basic values. An independent and democratic
Latvian state is one of these fundamental values.
Only a democratic and stable state can provide access to a contemporary
standard of living found today in modern Europe and guarantee welfare,
education, security and favourable relations between minorities and the
principle national group.
The task of integration is to facilitate an understanding of the future
in all dependable and loyal Latvian residents, and simultaneously to promote
an understanding among all residents that living together in one state
is necessary, that only together can we improve prosperity and security,
and that each person must contribute his knowledge, initiative, and good
intentions to the development of Latvian society.
Integration means broadening opportunities and mutual enrichment. It
is better to know several languages than to know only one. Experiencing
several cultural environments offers a better perspective than being confined
to only one. The integration process reinforces common values, interests,
and knowledge both at the individual level and within society as a whole.
The integration of society includes processes that occur in various
spheres - political, judicial, social, educational, cultural - to mention
a few. Alongside political integration, social integration plays an important
role.
Integration is taking place when all Latvian residents are actively
involved in social life in Latvia. An integrated civic society is one where
non-Latvians have a command of Latvian language, having overcome alienation
from Latvian cultural values, and are involved in realising the common
goals of Latvian society; and where non-Latvians have the right to preserve
their native language and culture.
Integration is founded on these basic postulates:
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Latvia's return to independence must be made irreversible. All of the main
political, judicial, economic and cultural expressions of the integration
process are based on this conclusion. The development of the independent
Latvian state and the integration of society are united and mutually-reinforcing
processes;
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global experience bears witness to the fact that divisions in society threaten
the fundamental unity of the state. The state is the main guarantor of
progress for the Latvian people and minorities residing in Latvia; a threat
to the state is a threat to Latvian society and to all the people living
in Latvia;
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internationally recognised human rights, and among them, respect for the
right of a people to self-determination, is a significant instrument for
the consolidation and development of Latvian society;
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Latvia has never been an ethnically homogenous nation. Society must take
into account the current situation and future prospects. Among citizens
of the former USSR, who are not citizens of any other state but reside
in Latvia (and therefore are appropriately referred to as non-citizens),
few wish to emigrate;
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Latvia is a national and democratic state in which every resident has the
right to preserve his or her own national identity. The integration programme
will involve the preparation of specific mechanisms guaranteeing the right
of the Latvian people to self-determination and the right of minorities
to cultural autonomy and the assurance of the fulfilment of cultural autonomy.
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on the psychological level, integration is the ability to trust. Trust
in the society develops only when each member in the integration process
feels safe and protected. For Latvians this means guaranteed security for
their traditions, lifestyle, their identity as Latvians and sustainable
cultural development. For non-Latvians, trust is built up on the conviction
that it is not in the interest of the Latvian state to deport them or to
forcibly assimilate them, or to limit their rights;
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a successful outcome for integration efforts in Latvia depends on public
support, on teachers, cultural leaders, religious representatives, and
the full range of the intelligentsia. Social integration is unthinkable
without the support and active participation of the political forces in
Latvia. The idea of integration of society will become a social force when
a majority of Latvian residents acknowledge its necessity and participate
in the process.
What the integration strategy does not support:
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the formation of a two-community state; the model of "two societies in
one nation"; confrontation between elements of society, segregation, marginalisation
and forced assimilation;
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tendencies to ethno-federalism that would undermine the formation of a
unified Latvian state;
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extremism, intolerance and national hatred.
Historical Conditions Affecting Integration Historically,
Latvia developed as a territory where Latvians were living already in ancient
times. Livs were an indigenous group as well.
In the 19th century, Latvia developed into a nation formed
from Latvians and Livs together with other national groups that arrived
during various periods of history.
On November 18, 1918, the state of independent Latvia was proclaimed.
Then, as a result of the criminal pact between Molotov and Ribbentrop signed
in 1939, the independent Latvia was occupied by Soviet forces in 1940 and
violently incorporated into the USSR. This fact is noted in the Declaration
of the Supreme Council "On reestablishment of independence of Republic
of Latvia"
(May 4, 1990) and in "Declaration on Latvia’s Occupation" adopted
by the Saeima of the Republic of Latvia (August 22, 1996).
Latvia also suffered heavy losses under Nazi German occupation from
1941-1945. Fifty years of occupation deformed Latvian economic, social
and cultural life; life in Latvia was conditioned by requirements of the
totalitarian regime.
During these years, Latvia was dealt a heavy ethno-demographic blow
from war, deportations, and repression; the Latvian population was substantially
diminished as a result, both in total numbers and in proportion to the
total population.
Nearly the entire existing Jewish community, which had been living in
Latvia for many years, was liquidated. Many Romanies were killed.
Ethno-demographic problems have not yet been resolved. Due to the colonisation
policy implemented by the USSR, the non-Latvian population increased by
several hundred thousand after the Second World War. After Latvia regained
independence, these residents were in a complicated position, having suddenly
found themselves in a different country with a different political system.
The principal changes that have occurred in Latvia since regaining independence
point to the need for Latvians and non-Latvians, citizens and non-citizens
to acknowledge their new roles and opportunities in a democratic, nation
state. The integration of society in many ways depends on opportunities
for development extended to both Latvians and national minorities. Development
means not only enjoying the right to preserve ethnic identity but also
accepting Latvian as the only state language, to learn this language and
to use it in public life. Both Latvians and members of national minorities
must be loyal to the State of Latvia they should observe national laws,
and should be ready to defend and strengthen this state.
The renewal of the State of Latvia also made Latvians again a majority
at the national level. In the biggest cities, however, Latvians are still
the minority, and this fact affects their perspective. Latvians frequently
continue to consider themselves as a minority; they do not feel like the
rulers and masters in their land. Being in the majority makes it incumbent
upon Latvians to assume the responsibility both to preserve their own language
and culture, and to ensure that Latvia’s political and economic development
is beneficial to all residents of Latvia.
Opponents of the integration of society do not believe that it is possible
to integrate non-Latvians into the national democracy. The opposition to
integration is typically related to a fear of losing ethnic identity. In
reality, it means that there is a lack of comprehension about integration
itself. The integration of society does not provide for loss of ethnic
identity. On the contrary, integration supports the development and growth
of ethnic identity.
Actually there can be no alternative to the integration of society.
Latvians must shed historical inferiority complexes and act with the conviction
that they can control and positively influence the processes that occur
in Latvia. For their part, non-Latvians must gain the conviction that they
will be able to maintain their ethnic identity in Latvia and be fully empowered
citizens of this nation. It is important for the non-integrated sector
to shed distrust and insecurity and to discard prejudices and offensive
propaganda spread by the totalitarian regime. It is important to realize
that Latvia can develop into a nation that protects free development for
any individual regardless of nationality.
Evaluation of the Historical Context as the Basis for IntegrationIn
order to agree on Latvia’s future course, it is important to establish
an objective understanding of the past. Of special significance are an
understanding of Latvia's history and knowledge of the steps by which the
independent republic came to be forcefully incorporated into the USSR in
1940. The Latvian people did not voluntarily choose the Soviet regime and
life in a totalitarian system; this must be understood. To arrive at a
common understanding on the loss of the rule of law during the Soviet era
concerning deportations and all other forms of repression against the Latvian
people, nationalisation of private property, forced collectivisation and
industrialisation, the demographic policy. Condemnation should be based
on a deep and objective understanding of historic events, so that the historical
consciousness of ethnic groups, especially in the younger generation, does
not become an obstacle to the integration process.
Integration - the Outline for Latvia's Future Integration
is oriented toward the future, presaging the evolution and development
of the State of Latvia and the society of Latvia. However, we ought to
be aware that certain people, due to their background, age, educational
experience, or other circumstances, will find it difficult to engage in
the process of integration, and will not succeed in locating their place
in a unified society.
In fact, it is indeed possible that integration will take place most
smoothly among young and well-educated people, because they are more open
and oriented towards democratic values.
Integration can only occur voluntarily; the role of the state is to
create conditions conducive to integration. The integration process need
not be advanced as a mass community integration project. Projects must
be individualised and specific, suited to each person and situation. If
the elderly, for example, cannot themselves enter into the integration
process, they will "achieve" this by way of the younger generation, in
this case maintaining their own benevolent neutrality toward the state.
The integration of society will not occur merely as the result of some
public relations campaign, it needs time, possibly decades. Yet even if
the integration of society is a matter of generations, positive results
of integration policy will become apparent in the shorter term.
Participants in the Integration Process Integration is
a multi - faceted process – non-Latvians will be learning the Latvian language
and overcoming their alienation from Latvian culture, but also Latvians
will develop an attitude of "receptiveness" toward non-Latvians. Up till
now, a point of view has predominated that integration is a concern primarily
for non-Latvians. To implement a program for integration of society, Latvian
attitudes and understanding should also change. Integration of society
in Latvia is a partnership between persons belonging to different social
groups, Latvians and non-Latvians, citizens and non-citizens, a process
in which each side is actively involved.
Conditions that Facilitate Integration
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renewal of democratic institutions with power in the hands of the people
of Latvia;
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progressive involvement of Latvia in the international community of democratic
states based on rule of law and ensuring the observance of human rights
and democratic freedoms;
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a close interdependence between security and prosperity for individual
residents, and for Latvians and members of minority groups living in Latvia;
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an absence of intractable conflicts that would forestall the formation
of a nationally unified, socially integrated civic community;
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the history of Latvia in itself has provided a positive experience of the
development of relations between ethnic groups;
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the fact that, according to sociological studies, ethnic relations are
not strained on the every-day level. There are a great variety - relations
of friendship, business relations, and mixed families are common in Latvia;
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knowledge of Latvian by non-Latvians is a chief indicator of integration;
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economic growth is allowing for more attention to be focused on factors
that promote integration;
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legislation has provided clear criteria for naturalisation, an important
part of integration.
Factors that Unite the Residents of Latvia in the Integration Process
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common universal human and European cultural values;
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the existence of democratic state based on the rule of law;
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a common territory, where we wish to live in prosperity, harmony and security;
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the endeavour to maintain favourable relations between people of various
ethnic groups;
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the desire to preserve and develop one’s ethnic and cultural identity;
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concern for environmental protection and preservation;
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endeavours to provide one’s children with good education and upbringing;
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ecumenical tendencies in religious life;
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the experience of victories and success on behalf of Latvia in sports,
cultural festivals and competitions, shared by persons of differing ethnic
origins.
The integration of society in Latvia is an historical opportunity to jointly
develop the state in a common effort based on universal human values and
interests, and to achieve coherence among the interests of all persons
belonging to Latvia, on the level of an individual as well as in social
groups and ethnic communities. Integration is a choice to listen to one
another and to co-operate. It is a choice for harmony among Latvia’s residents.
It is a choice for a secure future for us, for our children and grandchildren.
Chapter One
Civic Participation and
Political Integration
The integration of society will not succeed if it is directed only from
"the top down" without active civic participation from the grass roots
level. Active civic participation in social and political life fosters
the irreversibility of integration and conformity with the interests of
the majority; it creates unity among the residents of Latvia and strengthens
democracy. During the years of independence in Latvia, the opportunities
for civic participation in state and social life have increased. However,
in order to achieve more active and comprehensive participation of people
in social life, it is necessary to overcome various prejudices, passiveness,
and distrust of one’s own capabilities. Passive obedience to state authorities
was characteristic in Soviet times. During the Soviet era, state authorities
adhered to an ideology and the chances for civic participation in decision-making
on different important issues were insignificant.
In today’s Latvia, in circumstances of governance in a democratic state,
preconditions exist for representation of interests of all residents and
groups of residents. It is only necessary to acknowledge one’s interests,
find the motivation to act and to choose the most suitable form of participation.
For a portion of residents, civic participation and political integration
will come with an improvement of their financial situation and the accompanying
sense of social security. However, economic growth alone will not secure
greater participation. At the same time, it will be necessary to accomplish
other tasks, which would bring residents of Latvia closer to the state.
Political integration means bringing together socio-political values,
interests and goals of people. Strengthening of civic participation fosters
such integration. Democratic political integration takes place on basis
of a parliamentary democracy connected with values of loyalty and independence
of the state. It occurs when parties represented in the Saeima (the Parliament
of Latvia) and Government use and secure democratic methods in their activities,
when non-governmental organisations (NGOs) develop methods for influencing
decision-making which are characteristic for democracy, and when individuals
acquire knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to make democracy work.
In order to foster such cohesiveness, it is necessary for the state
to raise public awareness and to educate people in the nature of the political
process in Latvia, in the state and its history, and in rights and the
opportunities for participation. At the same time, the state should create
an environment, which brings out patriotism and unlocks the potential for
participation in civic society, as well as non-governmental organisations,
in political parties, the election process, and the naturalisation process.
One of the most convenient ways to secure individual participation in
social life is participation in non-governmental organisations. A wide
network of NGOs in the state and its functions promote the formation of
civic society, which strengthens both links between individuals and groups
as well as links between the individual and a state organization. For the
members of society, participation in the activities of non-governmental
organisations, participation in political processes, and involvement in
decision-making can strengthen the sense of belonging to Latvia. This sense
of belonging can come about regardless of affiliation with different social,
national, religious, linguistic groups, or and regardless of other differences.
Through use of modern technologies, civic participation is possible
also when citizens reside outside the country. Such means should be used
in order to involve Latvians and citizens of Latvia residing abroad.
Integration of society is influenced by interstate migration – emigration
from Latvia and immigration into our country. The renewal of independence
provided a chance for Latvians living abroad to return to their homeland
– this process of repatriation process has started. People, who are returning
to Latvia, shall be assisted in integration in Latvia.
Latvia is interested to keep in contact also with non-Latvians who after
leaving Latvia, wish to co-operate and keep in contact with our country.
In accordance with the spirit of many international human rights documents,
the desire of minorities to co-operate with their ethnic homeland and their
compatriots in other countries should be supported.
I. Goals of Civic Participation
and Political Integration
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Civic participation. To increase political integration and active
participation of residents of Latvia at all levels in the parliamentary
process. To overcome alienation of people from state and local institutions
by maintaining a dialogue between the individual, the society and the state.
To increase the prestige of Latvian citizenship by creating a favourable
attitude towards the process of acquiring citizenship.
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Non-governmental organisations. To promote civic participation and
especially individual participation in the life of society and the state
by supporting formation and activities of NGOs as well as fostering individual
involvement in the activities of NGOs. To strengthen links a) between individuals
and groups of society and b) links between individuals/groups of society
and the state.
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Repatriation, migration and co-operation with expatriates abroad.
To establish a unified system which would ease the return to his or her
homeland for any Latvian or citizen of Latvia who wishes to do so and would
assist in his or her integration in the society of Latvia. The establishment
of a system for maintaining and strengthening co-operation with Latvians
"in exile". To assist those people who, after re-establishment of independence,
do not want to integrate into the society of Latvia and are considering
a return to their ethnic homeland or life in another country.
II. Overview of the Situation
and Problems
Participation
Sustainability of voter participation Participation in
elections is the most common form of political participation. Previous
participation of people in Saeima elections has been high: 89.9% of electorate
participated in the 5th Saeima elections; 71.9% in the 6th
Saeima elections; 71.9% took part in 7th Saeima elections. In
elections to local governments, this activity has been significantly lower:
58.5% of electorate in 1994 and 56.8% of electorate in 1997.
The results of the referendum on amendments to the Citizenship Law (which
took place on October 3, 1998) were interpreted as evidence of trust in
persons who were not yet citizens of Latvia. The referendum facilitated
a reduction of the degree of distrust in society, and therefore prepared
the way for further integration of society.
It should be noted that 24% of the electorate are citizens of non-Latvian
origin. The results of elections illustrate that members of this group
support various parties and political unions.
Forms of Participation other than Elections According
to research and sociological surveys, civic participation decreased significantly
right after renewal of independence. However, in the last few years, participation
has begun to gradually grow including participation in different political
activities. For example, people are searching for more contacts with state
officials and representatives of the mass media in order to solve political
issues. They are more participating in public demonstrations and the activities
of non-governmental organisations.
Alienation from the State, and Individualism in the Society
According to sociological surveys, residents in Latvia are expecting a
lot from the state, but, at the same time, they do not trust state institutions.
They perceive them as alien and inaccessible. This distrust and alienation
is partly inherited from the Soviet era; it is also connected with objective
socio-economic and political difficulties after the regaining of independence.
Notwithstanding changes of government and economic growth since the renewal
of independence, alienation has been rather persistent. Even today, a notion
of "us and them" prevails.
People in Latvia do not believe that their participation in political
processes can be meaningful and they have rather low self-esteem. Surveys
done by Baltic Data House (Baltijas Datu nams) in 1997 and1998 show
that 66% of people in Latvia think that they do not know as much about
politics as their fellow-citizens. Only 27% of people believe that public
protest (for example, picketing) can influence decision-making, and only
14% say they are ready to participate in such activities. Citizens distrust
members of Parliament and state institutions. Only 8% of the citizens believe
that deputies they have elected will follow their pre-election promises,
and only 20% trust state and local civil servants. In times of trouble,
the majority of people rely only on themselves or their relatives. 40%
of people believe that common interests can be defended in co-operation
with others, but only 24% consider that they can trust their fellow-citizens.
Granting of Citizenship - an Important Element in the Integration
of Society Citizenship is both a precondition for realisation of
other political activities (rights) as well as an important legal connection
between the state and individual; citizenship means that a citizen trusts
his country and that the citizen also has a duty to fulfil with respect
to his country. Only citizens have a right to take part in the elections
and referendums.
Due to historic, political and legal reasons, Latvia can be distinguished
from other European states with a large number of non-citizens; almost
one fourth of residents are non-citizens. Since February 1, 1995, when
the naturalisation process began up until October 1998 when referendum
on amendments to the Citizenship Law took place, the naturalisation pace
was very slow. In that four-year period, slightly more that 12,000 people
acquired citizenship through naturalisation.
A significant obstacle for many potential candidates for citizenship
is their insufficient knowledge of the Latvian language. And often naturalisation
is hindered by the lack of information about the requirements set by the
Citizenship Law. Many non-citizens lack motivation to become citizens or
to undertake the obligations of citizenship.
After the referendum of October 1998, the number of non-citizens applying
for citizenship increased. Persons willing to become citizens made 228
applications in September 1998 and 407 applications in October 1998. In
November, the number of applications received by Naturalisation Board reached
1148. The biggest number of applications was received in March 1999 – 1481.
From the time of the referendum till May 1999, citizenship was granted
to approximately 672 persons per month. In the same period last year, about
354 applications were submitted per month and citizenship was granted to
an average of 273 persons per month.
By establishing favourable
attitude towards the procedure for acquiring citizenship, the prestige
of Latvian citizenship is raised. With regard to naturalisation, certain
problems can be identified:
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residents are not showing much interest to find out about their opportunities
and rights to acquire Latvian citizenship;
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naturalisation is often interpreted and perceived only as a formal event
and not linked with the whole process of developing an integrated society;
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candidates for citizenship acquire their opinions on issues related to
citizenship and naturalisation from the mass media which does not always
provide objective information about issues naturalisation;
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the naturalisation process in Latvia is significantly hindered by the lack
of sufficient knowledge of the Latvian language. Approximately 20% of non-citizens
do not have command of Latvian language, and approximately 30% have a low
level of knowledge. Many non-citizens (15%-20%) indicate that in daily
life they rarely hear Latvian language. This last statistic shows that
this particular group of non-citizens has little chance of using and learning
Latvian;
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many non-citizens lack the motivation to become citizens and take on the
obligations of citizenship.
Non-governmental Organisations
Dynamics of Development of Non-governmental Organizations The
biggest wave of participation in NGOs came in the late 80s when the majority
of people in Latvia joined social movements in order to foster, directly
or indirectly, the renewal of independence. After 1991, such activities
dramatically decreased. In 1991, 54% of the people identified themselves
as members of at least one organization, religious organizations and political
parties included. In 1994, that figure was 40%, in 1996 - 20%, and in 1998
- 28%. This dynamic illustrates several processes.
For example, organizations such as labor unions or Red Cross gradually
ceased to exist. (At one time, people were included automatically in organisations
when they started to work or study.) In addition, non-governmental organizations
which were based on needs of the transition period and which depend on
volunteers have started to develop only gradually. According to results
of surveys, only 10% of the people can be considered as members of NGOs.
In addition there is a bigger tendency among citizens than among non-citizens
to join in organizations for achieving their interests.
Consolidation of NGOs The NGO Centre has functioned in
Latvia since 1996. It is established with assistance of three core-donors
– the government of Denmark, United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
and the Soros Foundation. With the assistance of the PHARE program, 11
regional NGO centers have been established (in Aluksne, Daugavpils, Liepaja,
Jelgava, Tukums, Kuldiga, Talsi, Madona, Cesis, Preili and Jekabpils.)
Two more NGO centres are planned: one of them in Rezekne and the other
one in Ventspils.
In this manner, the network of NGO regional centers will cover the whole
of Latvia and will continue to promote integration. Such centres facilitate
contact among persons who share the same points of view or by helping individuals
to locate like-minded people for the purpose of founding new NGOs. Regional
NGO Centres provide consultations for establishing organizations as well
as training in how to administer NGOs, in fund-raising, accounting, public
relations, and human rights.
NGOs Promote Co-operation for achievement of common goalsNGOs
are established for the sake of joining people together in achievement
of common aims, the creation of common values and to enable cooperation
regardless of the origin or social status of NGO members. NGOs are also
organised on the principle of ethnicity in order to create an environment
conducive to the preservation of ethnic identity of various nationalities
living in Latvia.
In the majority of organizations, people are joining together on basis
of common values for achieving common goals regardless of ethnic origin,
citizenship or affiliation to any social group. In this context, philanthropic
organizations should be mentioned. These organizations are active in fields
such as social security, health protection, human rights and integration,
environmental protection, education, entrepreneurship, sports and recreation.
Associations of hunters and fisherman, vehicle owners as well as various
societies and associations of entrepreneurs and other professional groups
could also be mentioned.
As mentioned earlier, people are joining national cultural societies
in order to preserve their ethnic identity. Such organizations exist in
Latvia for Russians, Belarussians, Poles, Jews, Ukranians, Estonians, Lithuanians,
and other minorities. The existence of many different kinds of societies
(established for cultivation of ethnic identity) serves as a basis for
recognising one’s cultural roots and to pass on cultural values to future
generations. NGO groups therefore decrease the risk of assimilation for
ethnic groups living in Latvia.
The results of the survey made by the NGO Centre in 1998 illustrate
that the NGO environment in Latvia is tolerant and open. 75% of those polled
admit that co-operation between organizations in which the majority speaks
Latvian and organizations composed of minorities are desirable. 53% of
the members of Latvian-speaking NGOs say they are ready to assist those
who are not yet speaking Latvian in educational activities. 65% do not
object to using Russian occasionally in educational seminars for NGOs.
All cultural societies that were questioned confirmed their readiness to
participate in seminars conducted in Latvian.
However, it should be noted that there are several NGOs with extreme
nationalist orientations (both Latvian and Russian) in Latvia. Special
attention should be paid to the way in which they are established and to
their activities in order to ensure that the principles of freedom of association
and freedom of expression do not conflict with the fundamental principles
underlying the democratic state.
NGOs as Promoters of Civic Participation in State AffairsSince
democratic development and economic growth is proceeding in our country,
it can be estimated that more and more people will come to be involved
in social activities. Furthermore, the history of Latvia indicates that
the environment has been enriched by the presence of many traditions; Latvia
is tolerant with respect to integration. Such an environment was already
flourishing in the 19th century. And in the 1920s, many movements
and societies were founded and began active work.
NGOs have proved that they can effectively co-operate with the government
institutions both on the state and local level.
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When NGOs are fulfilling the functions delegated from the state and local
governments, this form of cooperation is a partnership. So far, NGOs have
been most successful in social work and education where they are cooperating
with the Ministry of Welfare and the Ministry of Education and Science.
The development of this cooperation was fostered by the regulations adopted
by the Cabinet of Ministers "Concerning the delegation of competencies
of state administration to authorized institutions".
-
NGOs also cooperate with government when they monitor and evaluate the
work performed by state institutions. The most active NGOs in this field
are working to protect human rights and the environment as well as the
rights of consumers.
-
Cooperation between the Government and NGOs in the process of decision-making
is also important. The views of NGOs were taken into consideration when
regulations of the Cabinet of Ministers "On delegation of competencies
of state administration to authorized institutions" were being drafted,
and when amendments to the law "Concerning public organizations
and their associations" was prepared.
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The role of NGO centres should be underlined: they act as partners in coalition
with government to secure the exchange of information with the regions
and on various fields of activity.
Repatriation, Migration and Co-operation
with Expatriates Abroad
Repatriation and Co-operation with Expatriates Abroad A significant
number of Latvians are living outside Latvia. However, it is not possible
to get precise information about the number of Latvians living abroad.
It is estimated that about 100,000 Latvians are living in the United States
of America, around 40,000 in Russia, 23,000 in Australia, 22,000 in Canada,
10,000 in the United Kingdom, 8,000 in Germany, 4,000 in Sweden and a total
of around 200,000 people in other countries. Therefore, the size of the
diaspora amounts to approximately one sixth the size of the population
of Latvia.
Large Latvian centres have been established in many western cities,
for example, in Toronto, New York City, Melbourne, Chicago, and Sydney.
Thousands of Latvians are living together in these cities; this has created
rather beneficial circumstances for sustaining the Latvian spirit. Latvians
living outside these population centres are subject to assimilation. In
all places where a large number of Latvians are living, Latvian societies
have been established. These societies and congregations have special schools;
studies take place on Saturdays and Sundays. Sunday schools for children
have also been established in CIS states, for example, in Moscow, St.Petersburg,
Magadan and Tbilisi.
The World Association of Free Latvians [PBLA] was established in 1956;
it unites Latvians living in the West. Soon after Latvia’s renewal of independence,
PBLA was joined with the Congress of Latvians in Russia (established in
1996). The Congress of Latvians in Russia unites all Latvian societies
in the biggest cities and villages of Russia and the CIS.
During the "years of exile," Latvian organizations abroad did not have
links with their ethnic homeland. Since the renewal of the State of Latvian,
the situation has changed. Many Latvians living abroad showed an interest
in returning to Latvia. In the Law on Repatriation adopted in 1995, it
is stated that "The Republic of Latvia supports re-unification of the Latvian
nation and is inviting Latvians and Liivs, who recognize their affiliation
with Latvia, to return to their ethnic homeland."
In accordance with statistical data, around 800 people are returning
to Latvia each year. Recently, the quantity of persons seeking re-patriation
is growing and the statistics on repatriates [persons returning from exile]
from different parts of the world are changing. For a while, around 80%
were coming from CIS countries, with 20% from the USA, Canada, Australia,
Great Britain and other Western countries. During the last few years, the
repatriation figures from the East and the West are virtually identical.
The repatriation process created a requirement for a state institution
that would assume responsibility for this issue. Beginning in 1991, this
task was given to Repatriation Section of the Citizenship and Immigration
Department (now called the Repatriation Centre of the Citizenship and Migration
Board).
People who wish to return to Latvia can receive assistance also from
various public organizations. In accordance with the Repatriation Law,
a Repatriation Fund was established. The law also provides for use of state
budget resources in establishment of the fund. Additional resources and
donations may be derived from foreign as well as local legal entities and
persons, as well as international organisations. For the time being, however,
the fund is being created only with state budget resources. The finances
of the fund are used for covering travel expenses of those seeking repatriation
as well as an allowance for rental fees, Latvian language courses, and
other purposes.
However, the overall rate of repatriation is low. The State of Latvia
until now was able neither to provide basic assistance for persons returning
to Latvia nor to encourage their return and integration in the society
of Latvia. Although the Repatriation Law states that local governments
should provide repatriates with a place to live in accordance with an annual
quota set by the Cabinet of Ministers, the Law "Concerning Assistance
of State and Local Governments in Solving the Issues Related to Apartments"
states that local governments may assist (this means – they also may choose
not to assist) repatriates in resolving problems related to apartment rentals.
Presently repatriates can acquire a place to live in accordance with the
same procedures as would apply to a citizen of Latvia, a foreigner, or
a non-citizen with a permanent resident. An apartment is only guaranteed
for those repatriates who have been victims of political repression, unlawfully
convicted, and then "rehabilitated."
There are often also no conditions created to facilitate economic and
psychological adaptation for those persons returning to Latvia. Problems
of subsistence arise if the repatriate is unable to find a job; when professional
re-certification is required but not easily secured; when knowledge of
Latvian is insufficient; and when unemployment insurance is unavailable.
Latvians living abroad are quite interested about life in Latvia. After
Latvia regained independence, Latvians in the west donated more resources
to help Latvia than they expended even on sustaining local Latvian societies.
But now much property is being sold, the activities of Latvian organizations
are decreasing, and the average age of members is ever increasing. Assimilation
reduces the number of Latvians both in the West and in the East. Schools
lack teachers of Latvian language and books in the local language suitable
for particular countries. Citizens of Latvia living abroad are not always
able to use their right to participate in Saeima elections. Educational
and cultural work with the Latvian diaspora in Russia is burdened by financial
problems.
Immigration and Emigration During the Soviet era, Latvia,
against the will of its people, became a destination for immigrants from
the USSR. The number of immigrants dramatically decreased when the process
of immigration was controlled under Latvian government laws and regulations
after the renewal of independence. In 1992, the Law on Entrance and
Residence of Foreigners and Stateless Persons into Republic of Latvia
came into force. The Citizenship and Immigration Department of the Latvian
Ministry of Interior implemented the Law.
Presently, there has been a re-orientation of the migration process
in Latvia; Latvia has become a country of emigration. Beginning already
in 1990, more people were leaving Latvia than arriving. Emigration is mostly
in the eastern direction. The largest number of emigrants is of Russian,
Ukrainian, Belarussian, and Jewish origin.
The problems connected with migration are gradually being solved in
accordance with international agreements. In 1993, the Latvian and Russian
governments signed an agreement on regulation of the migration process
and the protection of rights of migrants; the agreement was ratified by
the Parliaments of both countries. In accordance with this agreement, the
Embassy of the Russian Federation in Latvia opened the Federal Migration
Agency (FMA) of the Russian Federation; the FMA assists migrants willing
to leave for Russia. In 1998, an agreement was signed between FMA and the
Latvian branch of the Helsinki Office of International Migration Organization
on provision of material assistance to poor families, single mothers, pensioners,
disabled and other poor migrants.
In 1999, the Cabinet of Ministers of Latvia adopted regulation No. 160
"Concerning
the procedure by which migrants are provided with compensation for travel
expenses". These regulations will be enacted on January 1, 2000.
Public organizations, which have tried to assist migrants to the East,
have not been successful. The emigration process eastward is still very
spontaneous. Due to the above-mentioned circumstances, the number of people
who would like to leave is bigger than the number who have left. Many poor
and elderly non-citizens are unable to return to their homeland even if
they so desired. This issue, however, must be investigated further; not
enough research has been done.
The demographic crisis is continuing in Latvia, and the interest in
economic development means emigration of loyal residents from Latvia is
not encouraged.
III. Main Directions for
Action
Participation
Dialogue between the Individual and the State In order
to overcome alienation, the activities of the state institutions and local
governments should become as transparent and open as possible. The necessity
and substance of the decisions adopted should be explained in a more active
and timely manner before the final decision is made so as to avoid misunderstandings
and decrease the possibility for unpredictable and uncontrolled reactions.
Direct confrontation between society and the state in solving important
questions does not facilitate dialogue. Confrontation diminishes the trust
in state institutions and stimulates alienation.
To provide information about the activities of state institutions in
timely and regular manner is not only the task for journalists. Information
about government activities should be provided by the state institutions
themselves. The work of the institutions will be more effective if they
are dealing with an informed public. Public access to information, therefore,
ought to be ensured as well as participation in discussions of government
decisions before those decisions are made.
In order to be effective in providing information, the program "Link
with the Citizen" should be evaluated; it should be revised or decentralized
mechanisms should be created for development of this function in the state
institutions. Alienation from the state is also enforced by the fact that
people lack information about their rights and opportunities, to use their
rights and freedoms in the private and public spheres.
Citizenship and Naturalization It is necessary to work
out and to implement a wide ranging complex of events to inform the general
public and to promote the prestige of citizenship in order to achieve a
positive change in the psychological attitude concerning issues related
to citizenship and naturalization.
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The general public should be informed about issues related to citizenship
and integration of society, about European Union citizenship and about
the rights and obligations of citizens. The Information Centre of the Naturalization
Board should create a database for educating and informing society, for
advising the public, and engaging in activities supporting a positive orientation
toward naturalization and the integration of society. This should be done
by organizing different events where citizenship is popularized; by promoting
activities which are connected with process of integration and naturalization;
and by increasing the number of persons who are acquiring citizenship through
naturalization procedure thereby increasing the proportion of citizens
in the country.
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A unified and standardised system should be prepared. The system would
assist non-Latvians as well as repatriates, who do not have command of
Latvian language, to learn Latvian language and the basics of the history
of Latvia in each administrative territory. At the same time it would serve
as civic education program for adults. During implementation of these events,
the Naturalization Board, the Ministry of Education and Science, the Latvian
Folk School, adult education centres, the Citizenship and Migration Board
and others should act as partners. The target groups for these events are:
residents who are preparing for naturalization; citizens who do not know
Latvian; repatriates (especially from the East); or any resident of Latvia
who has an interest about the history of Latvia, legal issues, civic society,
etc.
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In order to inform the society, it would be beneficial to make a series
of broadcasts on state and regional stations as well as to encourage events
in auditoriums. Involving participants in competitions during the broadcasts
to collect the views and knowledge of voters about popular issues could
do this.
Activities of Non-governmental Organizations
in Improving the Environment
Legislation Development of legislation, which would contribute
to the development of NGOs and their financial sustainability, should be
promoted. Presently, the legislation in force, which regulates activities
of NGOs, does not create significant obstacles for establishment of organizations
and their activities. However, it also does not further their development.
Restrictions on economic activities of NGOs, which do not allow them to
acquire resources for achieving their aims, still exist in the Law on
Public Organizations and their Associations.
Charity and Philanthropy Strengthening of charity and
philanthropy should be supported. Most of the income of NGOs in Latvia
consists of donations from international donors – the Soros Foundation,
the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the EU’s PHARE program,
the Baltic American partnership program, and others.
State financing for NGO projects is available through the Capital Fund
for Culture and the Environmental Protection Fund. A Law on Funds
should be prepared; such a law will promote the consolidation of financial
resources to achieve the priority goals of society. The Law on Charity
has not been passed either; this law would identify the most important
social spheres. Persons and companies donating to these spheres would receive
discounts on taxes.
Co-operation between the State and Local Governments, Entrepreneurs
and NGOs Co-operation between the state and local governments,
entrepreneurs, and NGOs should be encouraged. There is evidence of good
cooperation between local governments and NGOs in the regions, when they
are making agreements on various discount arrangements in order to secure
the work of the organizations. This cooperation should be widened, and
entrepreneurs should be involved.
Delegation of Functions to Non-governmental Organizations
The assignment of state and local government functions to non-governmental
organizations should be promoted. Principles of equality and public competition
should be taken into account. The Ministry of Welfare and the Ministry
of Education and Science already practice delegation of functions with
the provision of adequate financing. However, the majority of state institutions
lack the understanding about this mechanism and it is not practiced. Therefore,
it is necessary to conduct educational activities for these institutions
and NGOs within the delegation of functions.
State policy for the integration of society should provide for intensive
cooperation with NGO centres, supporting them and promoting the development
of NGOs.
Repatriation, Migration and Co-operation
with Expatriates Abroad
Support for Repatriates Who are Moving Back to Live Permanently in
Latvia. It is necessary to ensure psychological, social and financial
support for repatriates in order to favor their permanent return and integration
into the society of Latvia. An integration system for repatriates should
be established. It will help to solve different issues related to repatriation
and integration.
In order to create the integration system for repatriates and immigrants
that enter Latvia legally, cooperation must be developed between Ministries
of Interior, Justice, Finance, Education and Science, Welfare, Culture
and others, as well as local governments and NGOs.
A database should be created with information on those who are planning
to move back to Latvia. Regular contacts should be maintained with prospective
repatriates in order to prepare in a timely manner for their integration
into the society of Latvia. Regular research should be made about integration
and adaptation in Latvia of those repatriates and immigrants who arrived
after renewal of independence.
Support for Persons who want to Emigrate from Latvia Latvia,
in cooperation with the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus, and other
countries should create conditions, which would facilitate emigration for
those people who wish to return to their homeland, but, for whatever reason,
are unable to do so. It is necessary to work out and to adopt appropriate
legislation to address the following issues:
-
finding out which people wish to emigrate from Latvia;
-
commencing intergovernmental negotiations with the states which will be
a destination for emigrants concerning support to be provided;
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encouraging the interest of NGOs and international organizations to find
solutions to the problems of emigrants;
-
solving financial issues related to emigration by giving support to poor
emigrants.
In order to implement these projects successfully, it is necessary to co-operate
with Western countries. In co-operation with foreign embassies, establishment
of a database is suggested. Such a database would contain information about
the emigrant, possible places to live and work, about schools and kindergartens,
houses for the elderly, and other issues of interest to emigrants.
Co-operation with Expatriates Abroad A concrete plan of
events should be prepared for maintenance and development of contacts with
foreign Latvians, for the preservation and support of their communities,
and for promotion of repatriation process. Foreign Latvians are valuable
assistants in developing Latvia’s image and in establishing contacts with
the society and government of the country where they reside.
NGOs and local governments should participate actively in cooperation
with foreign Latvians.
Chapter Two
Social and Regional Integration of Society
The United Nations Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development, signed
by 116 countries including Latvia in 1995, proclaims that the significance
of social development and welfare of all people and the achievement of
this goal, must be a top priority.
It is in the interests of development of Latvia as a nation that the
state grant equal opportunities to all residents with regard to work, income,
social and cultural life. This society should be based on respect for human
rights and freedoms, cultural and religious differences, and observance
of social justice. Special attention should be paid to diminish the risk
of social exclusion, and to demographically endangered groups in society.
The emergence of disloyal residents within any region of the state is unacceptable.
I. Aims of Social and Regional
Integration of Society
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Social integration. To create a society with equal opportunities
for all. To extend the possibilities for social participation to all individuals
and groups of residents. To secure equal opportunities for members of society
to gain access to resources of the society and to live life to the fullest.
To promote formation of a middle-class.
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Regional integration To achieve conditions for life and work in
all regions of the state which are as balanced as possible. To reduce and
prevent unfavourable regional differences by promoting preservation of
beneficial environmental differences and the preservation of cultural differences.
To encourage steady naturalization in all regions and to encourage closer
integration and consolidation of citizens of non-Latvian origin with Latvian
society.
II. An Overview of the Situation
and Problems
Social Integration
Economic growth is not always directly proportional to social and human
development, particularly in many of the transition countries. Therefore,
increasing attention should be paid to the structure and quality of growth
in order to promote human development and social integration, to eliminate
poverty, to protect the environment, and to secure sustainable development
of society.
Unequal division of benefits resulting from economic growth endangers
harmonious development. An extensive or well-to-do middle class has not
yet formed. The stratification and alienation of people continues.
The decrease of birth rate, establishment of families and their stability,
as well as an expected reduction in life expectancy have caused demographic
crises in the society. The natural increase in population is absent. This,
taken together with prevalence of emigration over immigration, has led
to a decrease of the number of inhabitants in the regions and in the country
generally.
It can be asserted convincingly that the number and proportion of children
will continue to decrease while the number of elderly will continue to
increase. The number of women of childbearing age will become smaller and
thus the birth rate will be even lower. The average age of inhabitants
is continuing to increase. The trend toward ageing of the population encourages
greater attention to adult education and re-training, health care for the
elderly, and social insurance. In demographic development for the future,
an ever-greater importance will be assigned to the quality of life rather
than quantitative aspects of life.
Social integration is constrained by the following factors:
-
poverty;
-
unemployment;
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inadequate education and lack of information;
-
insufficient social mobility; and
-
shortcomings in the social security system.
In this context, the following problems of social development should be
mentioned:
-
an increase of social polarisation caused mainly by gaps in scales of income,
and widespread poverty;
-
the prevalence unnatural and violent deaths;
-
marginalization of individuals, families, and social groups;
-
the spread of violence, also by way of the mass media;
-
an increase of the number of beggars, of homeless persons and "street"
children;
-
the spread of alcoholism as "an escape" from long-term stress, as well
as an increasing incidence of drug and substance abuse.
For several social groups, the risk of social alienation is usually higher.
Increased attention should be paid to this fact in considering social integration.
These groups consist of, for example, orphans; "risk" families and families
in crisis, including large families; the unemployed; the homeless; people
living in poverty; persons discharged from prison; people with mental disabilities;
people with special needs; and elderly people near retirement age.
Poverty and Differences in Income Poverty is a main factor
hindering social integration. Most "risk" factors can be related to poverty.
Material welfare or the lack of it determines the quality of food, clothes,
home and, therefore, also the condition of health, education as well as
possibilities for social participation and social mobility.
Poverty and social alienation are closely interdependent. If there is
increasing spread of poverty, social alienation is increasing as well.
Unemployment and low salaries foster this. Low salaries may support stabilisation
of macroeconomic situation but they have negative impact on the lifestyle,
health, and social protection of people, which influences also the quality
of life for the next generation. Sociological data indicate that approximately
40% of children are living in families where the average monthly income
for each member of the family is less than 28 lats.
In society, where the basic needs of the majority of residents are not
ensured and where the poor dominate, asocial phenomena flourish (alcoholism,
drug addiction, suicides, criminality, and prostitution).
The regionalization of poverty is becoming a social problem. The relative
figures of poverty in Riga and its surrounding regions are lower than the
national average. Differences are determined by the place where a person
is living: the bigger the city, the smaller the risk of poverty.
For several groups, the risk to be poor is higher than the average.
Among these groups are households with three or more children or where
the breadwinner is young, has a low level of education or is unemployed.
Also households which are mainly dependent on agricultural income or social
welfare payments (excluding pensions) are a risk group.
Poor families are often excluded from social contacts, from cultural
events, access to good education, and quality health care. Celebrations
are rare in these families and family traditions are not developing. Members
of poor families have lower self-confidence; they suffer more often from
depression. Inheritance of poverty from generation to generation is characteristic
of these families.
Unemployment Unemployment is an obstacle to social integration,
and it contributes to poverty. Latvia exhibits signs of structural unemployment;
this was caused by economic changes after the renewal of independence.
The demand for labour decreased after the liquidation of many enterprises.
Presently, one tenth of economically active residents is registered as
unemployed.
Many have no job. They may be looking for work and ready to start to
work, but they have not registered themselves as unemployed. The real proportion
of those economically active residents looking for job is estimated to
be three times larger than those registered. The proportion of women looking
for a job is higher than the proportion of men. In the cities, the proportion
is higher than in the countryside.
Some, who have lost hope of finding a job and have quit looking for
one, are considered to be economically inactive. One of the main reasons
for unemployment is the lack of training and job experience as well as
an inability to meet employer requirements. People who are inexperienced
are those with only three or less years of experience or recent graduates
or young people who have not completed high school.
Working class and poor residents have very low salaries. The low level
of salaries is related to the low level of the minimum wage as well as
the practice of paying the salary "under the table" and to the high proportion
of low paying jobs especially in agriculture. Only a small percent of economically
active households have a job, and when they do, the job is typically one
with low wages and with low professional requirements; poor households
suffer from this combination of factors.
Education, age, and gender are important determinants of success in
the labour market. People with a low level of education and most young
people lag behind other social groups in the labour market. Young people
get lower salaries. There are fewer women employed and those whom are receive
lower salaries and are hired for jobs requiring lower qualifications.
The permanently unemployeds are a specific problem. There is a large
dichotomy between urban areas and countryside regarding employment. Unemployment
is higher in urban areas, but, in the countryside, salaries and the quality
of employment are lower and a higher proportion of jobs are part-time (seasonal).
The employment policy is implemented in a combined "package" with other
activities of economic policy. Application of specific measures in such
spheres as privatisation, development of small and medium sized business,
promotion of entrepreneurship, export stimulation, and balancing regional
development create new work places. A medium term economic strategy for
Latvia would provide for the package of measures already mentioned as well
as additional measures to allow for a reduction of unemployment. With such
measures, unemployment could be decreased. According to the present prognoses
of the Ministry of Finance the unemployment level will decrease during
the time period till 2003, but will remain within the 8% limit.
Inadequate Education and Lack of Information as Factors Limiting
Social Integration Access to education and information, or the
lack of access determine, to a certain extent, the division of income and
social exclusion including its duration and irreversibility. Today, information
and education are significant factors not only in the development of technologies
but also in the creation of the social hierarchy in the society. Access
to information has become a precondition for mobility of certain groups
of individuals and social groups.
In the 1990s, inequality in access to education and information has
increased, especially for adults. An increase in the total amount of information
does not exclude existence of certain groups of individuals and social
groups which use information rarely or very rarely and which are not motivated
to increase their knowledge, or to learn and to study.
Education is more and more connected with the social status of an individual
but especially with the place of work. Depending on the place of work and
duration of the contract of employment, employees have differing opportunities
to acquire information and for professional development. There are better
opportunities for specialists working in leading positions of state institutions
and large companies, less for those who work for a limited time, and even
less for temporary workers and the unemployed.
The main risks connected with education in the information society are
the following:
1) lack of skills to become oriented within the flow of information
and to quickly acquire needed information and evaluate its accuracy;
2) the inability to learn;
3) lack of information which promotes the link between the resident
and the society, and the resident and the state, a lack of understanding
about human rights, obligations and opportunities in the society;
4) lack of education and information about self-help and the ability
to survive, especially in crisis situations;
5) a disconnection of educational institutions from the necessities
determined by the development of society and market demand;
6) a discrepancy of education policy with the necessities of various
social groups including people with mental disabilities, people with special
needs, and people in penitentiaries.
Shortcomings in the Social Security System A developed
and integrated society is characterised by a rather large and stable middle
class with wide horizontal and vertical opportunities for social mobility.
Social mobility is defined as the change of social status of individuals
and groups. During the 1990s, a decline in social status was the dominant
trend. Consequently, a new social hierarchy developed, characterised by
a sharp distinction between rich and poor. Isolation of segments of the
society began. Families with children, young people, persons over 45 years
old, women, residents with a lower level of education - general and professional
- persons with health problems, various professional groups (for example,
teachers, medical personnel, and engineers) were severely affected.
At a time when a very large segment of the population is moving down
in the social hierarchy, both individuals and social groups have difficulties
to identify with their new social status. A need arises to make a radical
change in lifestyle and profession, to live within a reduced budget and
appraise priorities. Under these circumstances, the decisive element is
self-confidence and trust in others as well as in the support of society.
The state has accepted the principles of a social security system. It
aims to secure the minimum level of social security for each resident by
dividing rights and duties of the state and individual in a manner, which
raises the role of individual and his or her family in social self-protection.
Sometimes it leads to a misunderstanding of state policies because taking
on this responsibility to ensure one’s own security is contradicted by
the unequal opportunities to achieve this. An individual ought to assume
responsibility for his social security. Both recipients of income for labour
and beneficiaries of social insurance services are forced to ask for help
under a social welfare system which aims at increasing social security
and protection for those residents who find themselves in crisis situations.
The network of social security services has not yet been fully developed
to cover all social risks. Several groups of residents are living virtually
without income from social insurance, but the social security allowance
can cover only the absolute minimum of everyday needs. In this respect,
the possibilities of feeling distanced from the state and society are still
persistent because of too much bureaucracy as well as the lack of resources
and information.
The present social security system cannot satisfy all pressing needs
of people and families in crisis situations. There are various reasons
for this: too many residents have a very low income, and the category of
people who need special care and social rehabilitation is relatively high.
No method has been found to prevent people from occasionally falling outside
the social safety net. The co-operation between state institutions, local
governments, non-governmental organisations and the private sector is gaining
importance in the field of social security.
Regional Integration
In the "Framework for Regional Development," a region is defined
as "a relatively homogenous part of the territory of Latvia (a group of
small rural districts or cities; a district or group of districts) which
is united by certain characteristics or common problems."
The development of regional differences in Latvia is determined by historic
ethnic composition (the Latgalians, the Courlanders, the Sellians, Liivs
and others), historic circumstances (subordination of regions to different
countries and belonging to different religious groups) and economic growth.
Especially in Latgale and the biggest cities, migration processes taking
place during the period of occupation by Tsarist Russia and the Soviet
Union also affected the development of regions. This is reflected in the
varied nationalities of inhabitants in the regions. Also religious creeds
vary considerably from region to region in Latvia. Protestants (including
Lutherans, Baptists, Seventh Day Adventists, and Methodists) live mainly
in Kurzeme, Zemgale, and Vidzeme, while Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox
and Old Orthodox live in Latgale. There is still an Eastern Orthodox Latvian
community in Vidzeme.
There are significant differences in opportunities with respect to standard
of living in the regions of Latvia. These are reflected in irregular economic
growth and economic activity between the territories, different rates of
employment and unemployment, the income level of residents, and determining
factors in social and cultural life.
However, not all the regional differences should be considered a disadvantage.
Differences of Latvian culture, language, traditions in different regions
should be considered a kind of good fortune for our nation. The Latgalians,
the Liivs and the Russian Old Orthodox of Latgale all possess unique identities,
which should be treasured.
Regional Integration of Non-citizens Around 80% of all
non-citizens are living in large cities – in Riga, Liepaja, Ventspils,
Daugavpils, Rezekne, Jelgava, Jurmala and the area of Riga. These were
the cities most affected by Soviet era immigration. Nevertheless, a large
proportion of inhabitants of Slavic origin live in Latgale and most of
them are citizens of Latvia. In contrast to the countryside and towns,
where non-Latvians are integrating into Latvian society, non-Latvian communities
(primarily residents of Slavic origin) in the large cities have limited
contacts with the Latvian community or with media in Latvian language.
Relatively closed non-Latvian communities outside bigger cities have developed
in several countryside regions of Latgale. The most important promoter
of integration in these situations could be schools, which bring pupils
of other nationalities closer to Latvian language and culture.
Other minorities living in Latvia are concentrated in certain regions
(Lithuanians near the border of Lithuania, Roma in Kurzeme, and Poles in
Latgale). The level of integration of Lithuanians, Roma, and Poles is much
higher than that of residents with Russian, Belarussian and Ukrainian origin.
Economics and the Social Sphere Transition to a market
economy, the renewal of property rights and privatisation is connected
with deep changes in economic structure. These changes have strongly impacted
the regions of Latvia.
The most important reason for uneven economic development in the regions
is the greater distance to markets and freeways as well as related communication
and transport costs, different levels of infrastructure development, different
levels of economic life, the heritage of the command economy, the demographic
structure, and the level of education of inhabitants.
Developed infrastructure and intellectual resources, and financial potential
as well as opportunities to take advantage of them are presently concentrated
in Riga and in the biggest cities of Latvia. As a consequence, there is
a disproportion between the pace and the opportunities for development
in the biggest cities and rural regions. This is reflected in the level
of unemployment and income, gross national product per resident and investment.
Although, usually Latgale is mentioned as the largest region suffering
economic depression, other regions in the countryside are also experiencing
economic difficulties, especially Selia, Vidzeme, and several places in
Zemgale and Kurzeme.
Effective, competitive rural farms are continuing to be established
in Latvia, and the land cultivated by such farms is expanding. Development
of agricultural production is inevitably lowering the number of agricultural
labourers. It will not be possible for everybody living in the countryside
to find a job in agriculture in the future. Therefore it is especially
important to connect state regulatory measures and state policy with direct
support to changes in the rural economic structure, namely, to extend job
opportunities for residents in the countryside and small towns.
The previous measures of the regional policy implementation are insufficient
when compared to the remarkable changes in the structure of national economy
during the last ten years. On the other hand when the options of the regions
are considered, strong regional structures that should develop the processes
"from the bottom" are lacking. As a result the negative differences still
intensify. Due to the migration of labour and capital to the more developed
regions of country, the less developed regions are not able to concentrate
the local human and technical resources by themselves for the use and development
of the advantages of a region.
Psychological Aspects Surveys highlight not only serious
economic and social problems but also psychological problems in the Latvian
countryside and small towns. People have difficulties adapting to new circumstances;
many are incapable of making the change from a "half-natural" way of farming.
In this way, the vicious circle of poverty has come into play. Low income
means low savings and low spending. Capital investment is low. Education
is low. Productivity is low. And, in such circumstances, the income levels
remain correspondingly low.
The Latvian intelligentsia, especially writers, during Soviet occupation
idealised life in the countryside, because at that time the countryside
was associated with the preservation of the Latvian identity. The regaining
of countryside property had a direct emotional and ethical foundation,
but no economic foundation. In a segment of society, an opinion that agriculture
is the answer remains widespread, and since Latvians are most often involved
in agriculture, there is a stereotype that agriculture is more appropriate
and suitable for Latvians than for non-Latvians. In this way, sometimes
a dichotomy is evident between rural areas and cities in the ethnic dimension.
Such a perspective works against the integration process.
Possible Threats Each country has conditions, which make
certain regions more competitive than others. Therefore, notwithstanding
diligent work to overcome regional differences, regional problems exist
in all countries.
Non-citizens and Latvian citizens of non-Latvian origin inhabit the
economically successful city areas in Latvia, whereas in rural areas, which
are economically depressed, more Latvians are living. Many non-Latvian
citizens also live in Latgale. The economic relationship between the countryside
and cities can develop in the future as a relationship between the "Latvian"
countryside and "non-Latvian" cities including ethnic and political confrontation
related to this problem.
The spheres of the Latvian economy still differ nationally in regard
to the structure of employment. A significant number of workers are employed
in the agricultural sector, and most of them are Latvians. The consequences
of a professional structure cultivated during the years of occupation,
when Latvians were forced out of such important economic spheres as railway,
shipping and aviation, can still be felt. Also, in the Soviet era educational
system, studies for these particular professions were offered only in Russian.
Since regaining independence, the disproportions have gradually begun to
disappear.
III. Main directions for
action
Social integration
Promoting Employment For implementation of Latvia's medium
term economic strategy and to facilitate EU accession, it is necessary
to foster employment in accordance with tasks and goals included in the
framework document "On the Promotion of Employment in Latvia." Special
attention should be focused on solving the problem of the long-term unemployed,
youth unemployment, and employment for women. An environment must be created
that fosters small-and-medium sized business so that the number of well-paid
jobs increases.
Limiting Poverty Poverty should be limited in accordance
with the framework document "Recommendations for the Purpose of Reducing
Poverty" and in accordance with the conceptual issues of stabilisation
of wages for needy residents.
-
Equal pay for equal work is the principle, which should be applied.
-
To raise the minimum wages on a regular basis and thereby maintain it at
subsistence level.
-
The roles of "social partners" and the labour agreement should be strengthened.
-
To elaborate administration of social tax and other taxes.
Development of Education
-
To strengthen the link between education and labour market.
-
To promote lifelong education for the disadvantaged, including adult education.
-
The development of professional education should be tied to the requirements
of the labour market.
Promotion of Demographic Policy
-
To develop and elaborate a national programme, "Residents of Latvia,"
and a programme which contributes to the promotion of demographic policy
in the country.
-
To strengthen families by ensuring them greater support in accordance with
the goals and tasks of the framework document "State Support for Families."
-
To improve the system of social welfare assistance to families with children,
by bringing allowances closer to the minimum wage.
-
To promote development of organisations for family recreation and tourism
which render special attention to families with children.
-
To foster dialogue between the generations by promoting proportional investment
to all age groups thereby facilitating creation of harmonious society.
Promotion of Cross-sectoral Co-operation
-
To increase the role of local governments, non-governmental organisations
and the private sector when tackling social problems.
-
To provide social services closer to the places of residence.
-
To observe the principles of timeliness and accessibility of these services.
To improve administration of social services, by reducing bureaucratic
"red tape."
Regional Integration
After the establishment of the Ministry of Environmental Protection
and Regional Development in 1993, Latvia started to work on a purposeful
policy toward the regions and its implementation. In 1996, the framework
document for Regional development and the Project for Promotion of Regional
Economic Development were completed. In 1998, the Cabinet of Ministers
accepted the Program for Rural Development. In order to implement concrete,
state-supported development projects in the specific state regions (districts
and villages) the law "On regions that should be specially supported"
was passed in the Saeima in 1997 and the corresponding rules of Cabinet
of Ministers have been adopted for implementing this law. The regions qualifying
for a special support have been identified, the Regional Development Council
has been set up and commenced its work. The Regional Fund and its executive
body have been established (a non-profit state enterprise provides financial
support for the specific development projects of local governments and
business).
In order to decrease regional differences, co-ordinated and purposeful
action by the state and local governments is required. When needed, non-governmental
organisations and international assistance should be sought for this work.
In accordance with the framework document on regional development, the
Program for Latvian Rural Development, the Strategic Program for Educational
Development and other documents, the most important directions for development
policy of Latvian regions are as follows:
-
purposeful investments in the development of infrastructure, thus promoting
private investment and raising the value of property in the regions; harmonisation
of state investment programmes with the aims of regional development policy;
-
connecting market regulations (for example, subsidies to agriculture and
public transport) with direct support for change of the economic structure
and economic diversification in rural areas. For rural development, the
creation of non-agricultural work places producing products with a higher
added value should be accented;
-
supporting re-qualification of the workforce in accordance with structural
changes of economy and adult educational centres;
-
development of rural and small town schools and regional universities and
development of the student credit system such that studies could be made
accessible to every young person in Latvia irrespective of the wealth of
their parents;
-
elaboration and extension of a network which includes entrepreneurship
support centres, agricultural consultation centres, adult education centres;
-
development of new "cutting edge" means for promotion of business in Latvia
including innovation centres, technological parks, and "business incubators;"
-
in response to the economic depression of regions near the border, to promote
the implementation of interstate projects for development of infrastructure
and to promote co-operation of areas near the border;
-
creation and implementation of the program for support of Latvian education
in the region of Latgale;
-
promotion of state and local government support for preservation and development
of the unique cultural identity of regions including Latgalian, Sellian
and other cultural activities as well as the cultural support program,
"Liivs in Latvia;"
-
elaboration of integration programs of society specially-tailored for the
biggest cities of Latvia;
-
fostering regional mobility of the workforce through development of modes
of transport including the public transport system;
-
development of the real estate market and the market for apartment rentals;
-
dissemination of information about job opportunities;
-
the elimination of bureaucratic obstacles (for example, in the registration
system for a place of residence).
-
to speed up privatisation of flats and registration of properties in Land
Register in order to increase liquidity of real estate market.
Chapter Three
Education, Language, and Culture
The educational system plays an important role in influencing the development
of an awareness of social values and inheritance of those values. Only
a unified education system can ensure the development of Latvian society
as a civic society with common values and responsibilities.
In implementation of the integration process of society, children and
young people make up the most important target group. However, the level
of democratic and political education and command of Latvian language is
a determinant in the integration of adults as well. Therefore, the Latvian
educational system becomes the most important driving force of the integration
process. The educational system must ensure the learning and inheritance
of human and specifically Latvian values, and the opportunities to preserve
inter-cultural education and the cultural identity of minorities.
A common language is essential for successful integration of society
and for creation and understanding of a common system of values. In 1998,
the Constitution (Satversme) of the Republic of Latvia was amended
with an article stating that Latvian language is the official language
in Latvia. An official language is both the symbol of the state and an
instrument for integration of society. Learning and usage of Latvian language
is one of the main factors, which ensures the stability of a multinational
society.
However, due to Latvia’s historic heritage, the status of the Latvian
language is still not secured. Therefore, special attention should be paid
to Latvian language development while respecting the rights of minorities
to develop and preserve their language and culture as basis of their identity.
Culture is a condition for development of a humane, creatively active,
self-confident national character. Understanding of all groups of society
about cultural values of the Latvian nation as well as the cultures of
minority groups is an important part of the integration process of society.
In order to promote the development of Latvian culture and minority cultures,
a unified cultural environment must be created and the cultural dialogue
ought to be expanded during the process of integration.
I. Aims of the Integration
of Society in the Policies concerning Education, Language and Culture
Education
-
To ensure that the Latvian language is learned sufficiently by all residents
of Latvia, but especially so that the younger generation is able to use
it freely as a means of communication;
-
to establish the educational system as a main instrument for development
of an awareness of the values of tolerance and civic society;
-
development of an awareness of the political culture of the younger generation;
-
to ensure elaboration and implementation of minority educational programs
which correspond to the above-mentioned aims while at the same time promoting
preservation of identity among minorities and their integration into Latvian
society.
Language
-
To establish a stable society which shares a common official language –
the Latvian language – and to ensure opportunities to use the language
in the public sphere throughout the country while at the same time supporting
minorities in the cultivation of their languages in harmony with the law.
Culture
-
To ensure preservation and development of cultural values;
-
to promote dialogue between the cultures;
-
to guarantee the rights of individuals to freedom of expression and to
protect and to develop their own ethnic, cultural and religious identity;
-
to care for the preservation and development of Latvian and minority cultures
and to conduct research supporting their development;
-
to create a climate conducive for integration of cultural life;
-
to promote understanding of Latvian cultural values for cultural values
of ethnic groups residing in Latvia;
-
to develop in people respect and tolerance with regard to other cultures;
-
to foster participation of all residents in cultural life.
II. Overview of the Situation
and the Problems
Education
The Development of Minority Education
General Education, the Institutional Network and Choice of the Language
of Instruction One of the most obvious manifestations of social division
is the parallel school system of Latvian and Russian language of instruction.
Co-operation between Latvian and Russian language schools is developing
only gradually. This separation has existed up till the present day and
has been one of the factors encouraging ethnic prejudices and stereotypes.
Russian language schools are gradually taking on a character of minority
educational institutions. The development of minority education is hindered
by insufficient knowledge of the Latvian language among teachers from minority
groups (especially in schools where the language of instruction is Russian)
and insufficient contact with the Latvian educational environment. Therefore,
the integration of society in education is inconceivable as a one-sided
process, during which only non-Latvians are learning Latvian language and
studying Latvian history and culture. Integration of society in education
is a process with two aspects, the Latvian and the non-Latvian, and both
sides should be prepared to engage in intercultural dialogue and show the
other side understanding, tolerance and cooperation.
In the beginning of the 1998-99 academic year, there were 725 schools
in which Latvian was the language of instruction, 193 Russian language
schools, 145 where both Latvian and Russian are spoken, and 11 other kinds
schools in Latvia. The majority of non-Latvian elementary school students
are attending Russian language schools. During academic year 1998-99, 119,200
elementary school students were attending these schools with 34.6% of the
total number of elementary school students attending schools of local governments
and the Ministry of Education and Science. Statistics show that the number
of Russian language schools as well as the number of pupils attending these
schools is decreasing. However, the largest proportion of Russian language
schools is located in the big cities.
Minority educational institutions cover general education from pre-school
to the secondary school level. Their number in each local government depends
on the number of pupils whose families have chosen these education programs.
After regaining independence, Jewish, Ukrainian, Estonian, Lithuanian,
Belarussian, and Romany schools were established as well as six Polish
schools.
Significant changes in the choice of the language for instruction take
place when children begin attending school. In the academic year 1998-99,
72.1% of all first grade students started learning at Latvian language
schools. Parents of non-Latvian and mixed families are choosing Latvian
language schools because they are thinking about educational opportunities
for their children and their competitiveness in the future.
In the academic year, 1998-99, there were 613 pre-school educational
establishments (29 of them private) working in Latvia and 168 groups of
schools. 72.3% of children were studying at Latvian language pre-schools,
27.2% at Russian pre-schools, 0.5% of children in others. In the 1998-99
academic year, the percentage of students that study in groups where the
language of instruction and conversation is Latvian has risen 4.8% in comparison
with academic year 1997-98.
Legislation In 1998, the Saeima passed the new Law on
Education; in 1999, the Law on General Education and the Law on Professional
Education was passed. In comparison with the previous law, the new Law
on Education provides for different ways of structuring the educational
system based on the principle of educational programs. The Law states that
language of instruction for receiving education in Latvia is Latvian, but
in addition to Latvian language other languages in education can be used
in minority educational programs and in cases provided for under international
agreements or special laws. The requirements set for minority education
programs are included in the state standards, and the Ministry of Education
and Science elaborates the models of respective programs according to educational
levels. The Law on General Education provides for elementary and secondary
school programs to be combined with minority education programs. In the
optional part of the program, the studies connected with minority identity
and integration in Latvian society are included. The Law on Education states
that state and local government financing can be provided only for those
private educational institutions, which implement accredited educational
programs in the official language. This means also that private education
institutions, which implement minority education programs, can obtain state
and local government financing. However, these institutions should observe
the requirements of state standards, they should be accredited, and at
least 50% of the subjects on the curriculum should be taught either in
Latvian, or bilingually.
The educational policy regarding minorities, which is set down in the
Law on Education, is deemed acceptable by the European Union and the OSCE.
The Ministry of Education and Science has established a program called
"Education" which addresses the issue of integration of society.
Language of Instruction in Minority Education Programs – Bilingual
Education In bilingual education, the educational process is organised
such that two languages are used for instruction. As a result, the second
language (in this case, Latvian) becomes a vehicle for learning.
There are about 200 models for bilingual education in the world. The
most appropriate models for bilingual education in Latvia are those which
allow for various modifications. In such models, children begin to learn
in their native (minority) language, but the proportion of the state language
is gradually increasing. Depending on a child’s proficiency with the second
language, the amount of study in the second language is adapted and while
at the beginning both languages are used in parallel eventually the teaching
of subjects is mainly in the second language. The transition to bilingual
education in minority education programs cannot be interpreted as exclusion
of native language from the educational process.
In commencing with implementation of the new Law on Education, the Ministry
of Education and Science has elaborated four models for minority elementary
education programs. They provide for different ways to effect the transition
to bilingual education depending on the choice of parents and students,
language proficiency, and the ability of teachers. The models of programs
offered have a character to be recommended and, after getting license from
the Ministry of Education and Science, schools have the right to implement
also their own educational programs. Bilingual education provides the opportunity
for non-Latvians to study Latvian language and culture without loosing
awareness of their ethnic origin.
The new Law on Education came into force on June 1, 1999. Starting with
the academic year 1999-2000, all educational institutions, which beforehand
have been called non-Latvian language schools, began to implement reforms
by choosing one or more models for minority education and started the teaching
at first grade in accordance with these models. The participation of democratic
institutions of local governments and school councils are especially important
for successful implementation of reforms, because it is the most direct
way in which parents from minority groups can control the process.
In order to support bilingual education, the 1999 state budget allocates
600,000 lats for granting of allowances to bilingual teachers and teachers
offering courses in Latvian in the context of minority education programs.
In accordance with data of survey performed by Baltic Data House in
1999, the reform of the educational system, in accordance with which Russian
language schools are gradually becoming bilingual, is supported by 84%
of all residents of Latvia. From those, whose native language is not Latvian,
the reform is supported by 69% of residents.
The National Programme for Latvian Language Training (NPLLT)In
July 1994, the government of Latvia began negotiations with the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and requested its assistance in drafting
a comprehensive Latvian language training programme for non-Latvian speaking
residents. In the course of developing the programme, attention was paid
to the problems that hinder Latvian fluency. Among these problems are non-Latvians’
poor integration into society, political history, the relative prestige
and hierarchy of the Latvian and Russian languages, the attitudes of minority
school teachers toward the Latvian language, and inadequate knowledge of
Latvian by the teachers at the schools of minorities. Underlying the programme
are several fundamental conclusions that characterise the approach to this
problem:
-
the need to change the way in which Latvian language is taught;
-
the need to introduce a new subject - Latvian as a second language - abandoning
the old methodology for teaching Latvian which was based mainly on teaching
it as the native language;
-
the need to recognise the needs of the target group,
-
the need for training on language usage, rather than study of literature.
Implementation of the NPLLT began in 1996. Within the framework of the
program, study books and specialised dictionaries for learning Latvian
as a second language in minority elementary education programs are elaborated
and published. During methodology courses, 40 educators who will train
teachers to teach Latvian as a second language are prepared. In courses
offered by the educators, 520 teachers of Latvian as a second language
have participated. 5,380 teachers participated in Latvian language courses
for teachers of minority schools. Language courses for representatives
of different professions, directors of minority schools and seminars for
developing new study material as well as other events have been organised.
1,045 teenagers, 16 to 18 years old, from Riga, Liepaja and Daugavpils
are involved in 43 Latvian language clubs and camps.
The State Language Proficiency of Educators Latvian language
skills, along with the overall preparation and motivation of teachers play
a decisive role in successful implementation of language policy in education.
In 1998-99, 28,900 teachers were employed in general education institutions.
16,900 worked at Latvian language schools, 7,700 at Russian schools, and
4,200 at schools with classes in both Latvian and Russian, 148 in other
minority schools.
The Ministry of Education and Science passed the rule "On certification
of the state language proficiency of teachers" (1996). This document
specifies that the level of state language proficiency for teachers of
all education institutions who have not been educated in Latvian should
have a high degree of fluency ("the third") in Latvian. During implementation
of this rule, 559 teachers successfully passed the official language proficiency
test; several teachers received an extension. 89 teachers were dismissed.
Cases where it is suspected that state language proficiency certificates
may have been forged are being considered separately.
Curriculum and Evaluation of Studies Regardless of the
language of instruction, the curriculum is the same for the whole educational
system. In addition to compulsory courses (history and geography) in elementary
and secondary schools for minorities, courses on ethno-culture, national
traditions, and history complement the minority curriculum. The curriculum
includes also the native language of minorities, and the part of the courses
connected with national identity is taught in the native language.
The transition to a centralised system of examinations for students
graduating from secondary schools took place in 1995. The introduction
of centralised Latvian language exam in minority secondary schools is continuing.
Centralised exams will also be gradually implemented for Latvian as the
second language for students graduating from minority elementary schools.
A centralised test for history and civics will be conducted in both Latvian
and minority elementary school programs.
Social Studies
Educational Curriculum Since the "third renaissance" of the
nation and the restoration of independence following the Soviet occupation,
many essential changes have been made in the content of social studies
and humanities curricula. New materials for teaching history are being
developed, mandatory civics and economics courses have been scheduled for
the 8th and 9th grades, and an ethics course for
the 7th grade is in the trial phase. Content guidelines and
subject standards have been set for history, philosophy, ethics, and the
history of religion, and teachers have been provided with some supplemental
materials to use on an elective basis. A plan has been drafted to develop
a social studies unit for primary schools. Within the next two years, the
scope of this unit will be expanded with an anthropology course in the
4th and 6th grades and enhancements to the existing
civics and economics courses.
In the secondary school social studies units, traditional history has
been supplemented with such subjects as basic economics, ethics, history
of religion, politics and rights, and history of culture. Under the new
programme, the secondary school curricula will be expanded to include social
science and economics programmes, thereby allowing students to pursue more
advanced studies in the social studies area. However, the development of
social studies curricula has been rather spontaneous and affected by different
projects and activities of interest groups, but sometimes even as a result
of pressure. A unified and general approach is missing with respect to
social studies and certain subjects overlap. The absence of developed civic
education is a cause for the political passivity of many young people and
for a low level of civic awareness.
Improvements made in the history curriculum in the years immediately
following the return to independence were geared mainly toward reforms
in ideology; less attention was paid to changes in methodology. It was
only in 1998 that educational standards for history began to support a
new approach in which study of mere facts were no longer considered the
goal but only a means for cultivating aptitude. Teaching of the controversial
issues of history is not resolved yet, and each separate school freely
and subjectively interprets these questions. Therefore at the end of the
9th and 12th grades the compulsory examination in
history of Latvia should be taken.
Civic Education Along with the development of social studies
units, a significant amount of the work in shaping civic consciousness
and promotion of social integration is accomplished in extracurricular
activities and after-school programs including sports activities.
In the first years of independence, the national policy of de-politicising
and "de-ideologising" education was primarily interpreted as a rejection
of any role for schools in teaching values; and yet, school activities
in the realm of civic education never ceased entirely. Organisation of
social events, commemoration of national holidays, competitions, sports
contests, projects and other activities depend largely on the enthusiasm
of administrators and teachers and their belief in the importance of such
activities. This type of work also attracts NGOs and political parties.
Youth groups, girl scouts and boy scouts play a significant role in civic
education. Schools could also benefit by working together with Youth Guard
(Jaunsargi) and Home Guard (Zemessargi). Local governments
have made significant investments in organising summer camps that are oriented
towards the teaching of Latvian language.
To encourage civic education, beginning in 1997, the Ministry of Education
and Science has issued guidelines for civic education activities. Included
in the appendix of these guidelines are several examples of successful
school projects.
However, a wide range of examples suggests the need to actively promote
civic consciousness. Because teachers are already over-burdened, this job
cannot be accomplished through enthusiasm alone. Without an organised and
well thought-out system for counselling, it cannot be hoped that teachers
alone can neutralise all the negative influences that young people encounter
in daily life. National institutions, local governments and NGOs should
co-operate with schools to replace stereotypes of alienation with an ethic
of participation.
The Qualifications of Teachers and Social Studies Units
An analysis of student history exams reveals that a solid knowledge of
facts is adulterated with an inability to orient themselves within an historical
context; students lack the capacity to analyse and compare various historical
events and to understand historical processes. These test results mirror
the preparation of teachers and the methods teachers use. This phenomenon
– the lack of analytical capacity - is a common symptom in school systems
of all post-Soviet countries, and an apparent legacy of the totalitarian
era. Only 50% of the history teachers in Latvia have appropriate professional
training in their specialities.
There is not yet any system of continuing adult education in Latvia
and the opportunities for teachers in social studies and civics to update
their knowledge are insufficient.
In the programs of higher education, which would correspond to educators
in social sciences, a pedagogical course is not included. Thus, graduates
of such programs have no certification, which allows them to work as teachers.
Social studies programs in institutions of higher education, as well as
training programs for teachers are of narrow specialisation; teachers of
general social studies, who could teach all units of the program and develop
unified concept for curricula in social sciences, have not been trained.
In other fields of specialisation, programs do not clearly define what
is compulsory in civics; the same problem applies to Latvian language,
world history, and the history of culture. Nevertheless, teachers of all
units are dealing with values and they should be competent in civics and
general social sciences.
The Supply of School Books and Teaching Aids A significant
factor hindering the development of social studies curricula is the lack
of up-to-date teaching material and methods. Even materials prepared since
independence exhibit dubious perspectives and "blank spots." The existing
study materials neither provide an accurate description of the roots of
Soviet communist ideology nor do they explain the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution
in Russia. The period after World War II is an issue, which is least elaborated.
Virtually none of the existing literature describes the violent occupation
of Latvia, the repression, the resistance and the dissident movement in
Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Russia, and the Soviet Republics. There is
hardly any material on the "socialist camp" in general. From the perspective
of social integration, it would be very important to show the solidarity
of the intelligentsia, to prepare appropriate teaching materials including
the writings of Gunars Astra, Alexander Solzhenytsin, and Andrei Sakharov
because the universal humanitarian values reflected in their works can
promote the integration of society.
In school and especially in private libraries, it is typical to find
that the only materials on Latvian society and history are those published
in occupied Latvia. Because of insufficient funding, new books or supplemental
reading materials are unavailable to teachers, students, and school libraries.
The situation is particularly dramatic in Russian-language schools; in
switching over to teaching of history, geography and other units in Latvian,
these schools require entire new sets of books in Latvian. From the point
of view of integration, the import of books published in Russia is not
acceptable on principle; such books are oriented toward another society
and another nation.
Unfortunately, the literature published during the period of Latvian
independence is also unsatisfactory from the point of view of social integration
and education in values. An analysis of teaching materials published in
Latvian and Russian illustrates that these books have an ethnocentric orientation
and consequently they do not highlight an image of Latvia as a modern culturally
diverse country, where not only Latvians but also minorities are living.
Religious Education Religion could play a special role
in the social integration process as a factor that strongly influences
the shaping of value systems. Various religious groups have always co-existed
in Latvia. In 1996, the Saeima ratified amendments to the Law on Religious
Organizations, which stated that traditional confessions have the right
to conduct religious studies in schools. Still these curricula should recognise
the interests of social integration by accenting common Christian values,
thereby forming a tolerant attitude toward all confessions and minimising
religious differences within society. At the secondary school level, the
religious education should promote understanding about religions and contemporary
religious movements without limiting itself to Christianity. In co-operation
with traditional Christian confessions, the work on inter-confessional
Christian study program has started.
Professional Education: the Transition to Latvian Language
Currently, professional education in Latvia takes place in Latvian and
Russian. In the 1997-1998 school year, a total of 46,200 students attended
professional educational institutions, 32,900 (71%) of them studied in
Latvian groups, and 13,300 (29%) in Russian groups. In secondary specialised
educational institutions in 1997-98, 24% received instruction in Russian;
in trade schools this figure was 32%.
In total, the number of students acquiring professional education in
Latvian is increasing. In more than half of the professional education
institutions, some of the general courses and special courses (professional)
for Russian groups are taught in Latvian. The number of courses taught
in Latvian is gradually increasing. Professional educational establishments
are preparing study materials and dictionaries in Latvian.
The following factors most hinder the implementation of a professional
educational program in Latvian:
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The fluency in Latvian of students who have finished Russian primary schools
does not meet the primary school standards.
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There is lack of specialised teaching material printed in Latvian.
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There are not enough teachers who could teach specialised subjects in Latvian.
Adult Education
According to Central Statistical Bureau data, enrolment in the adult
education program is over 100,000 and growing. The highest demand is for
adult professional development programs. Of the total adult education programs,
10% are language programs; of those, Latvian courses comprise 35% (in comparison,
English courses make up 55%). Latvian language courses for adults are offered
by educational institutions, state, local, and private enterprises, and
public corporations, which happen to be offering training as one of their
activities. Since the Latvian language training is mostly available at
a cost, many people are unable to afford the tuition.
To foster a positive attitude toward the study of Latvian, the Latvian
Folk School, founded in April 1998 and its 9 branches have begun testing
an experimental program. The Latvian Folk School in conjunction with the
Naturalisation Board and the Ministry of Education and Science established
the Department for Promotion of Social Integration. The goal of the Department
is to help non-Latvians prepare for the naturalisation process. The Department
for Promotion of Social Integration has adopted an approach to teaching
Latvian which combines language training with history, culture, and issues
of daily life creating a casual environment during exercises. This course
will prepare students to pass a Latvian language exam in line with the
requirements for citizenship.
The Latvian Association for Adult Education by way of courses, seminars,
and discussion clubs explores the theme "Civic Education in Democratisation."
Teaching materials are being developed on this theme. In 1996, the State
Language Centre, along with the Ministry of Education and Science, the
Latvian Association for Adult Education, and the Knowledge Society (Zinibu
biedriba) implemented an EU-sponsored project, "Teaching Latvian to
non-Latvians;" this has resulted in a programme and teaching materials
for Latvian instruction. Adult education projects are also being implemented
under the National Programme for Latvian Language Training.
Language
The current predicament of the Latvian language reflects the complicated
political, economic, ethno-demographic and psychological processes, which
have taken place during the course of history in Latvia. Adhering to the
ethno-demographic composition of Latvia at the end of the 20th
century, Latvian, Russian, Ukrainian, Belarussian, Polish, Lithuanian,
Estonian, Roma, German, Liiv languages are spoken today in Latvia. Most
of these languages are used in restricted spheres, mainly in the family
or in cultural activities. Russian is the native language for many members
of minority groups in Latvia. Foreign languages play an ever- increasing
role in Latvia, especially English. Presently, Latvian, Russian and English
are fulfilling important functions in Latvia.
The Latvian language is the official language of the Republic of Latvia.
Persons, belonging to minorities, have the right to preserve and develop
their language, and their special cultural and ethnic heritage.
In 1989, the Law on State Language of the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic
was adopted. In 1992, amendments and additions to the Law on State Language
reflected the changes in the status of Latvia. The implementation mechanism
of the State Language Law of the Republic of Latvia is incorporated in
several legal documents, for example, Regulations on State Language Proficiency
Testing and Regulations on State Language Inspection of the Republic of
Latvia. The Citizenship Law and the Law on Education affect the usage of
the Latvian language. In 1999, the Saeima adopted the new Law on State
Language, which was returned to the Saeima by State President for additional
review [this law was finally passed on December 9, 1999].
During the last ten years, the number of residents who have no knowledge
of Latvian at all has significantly decreased, and the proportion of people
who can communicate in Latvian is steadily increasing. Slowly, but surely,
the number of members of minority groups who speak Latvian well is on the
increase.
The viewpoint of people and groups concerning language and the use of
languages varies. During the last decade, the attitude of minorities toward
the Latvian language has changed. Presently more than 90% of members of
minority groups acknowledge that Latvian as the official language and that
there is a need to know Latvian. However, around 70% of members of minority
groups that participated in a recent poll still admit that Russian should
have the status of official language as well. In practice, that would place
one minority in a privileged position.
Prejudices and mutual distrust persist in Latvian society. Latvians
have been passive in promoting Latvian language training. However, many
objective and subjective factors hinder learning of Latvian language. More
often respondents in opinion polls are mentioning the lack of financial
means, age and the few opportunities to use Latvian. Also, in communication
with Latvians, the Latvian language is not always used; Latvians often
converse in Russian. The psychological barrier to speak Latvian is also
emphasised.
Culture
After the renewal of independence, the cultural processes in Latvia
have maintained some elements of historical continuity but have also gained
new traits. Continuity can be noted in the high prestige assigned to culture
and widespread popular participation in amateur cultural activities such
as singing in choirs and nurturing traditional folk art forms, as well
as the close ties between Latvian culture and the processes of international
cultural evolution. Intellectual freedom is the hallmark of the new diversity
of artistic self-expression and this includes the free development of Latvian
and minority cultures. At the same time, cultural values are influenced
and levelled by mass culture. Cultural infrastructure is unevenly developed
as is the funding of the various spheres of culture, and many spheres of
culture have not faired well under the current economic conditions.
Legislation which regulates the spheres and processes of Latvian culture
has been adopted, including the work of cultural institutions, libraries,
museums, archives, as well as cultural heritage, preservation of cultural
values of Latvians and minorities, are adopted. The law on the Unrestricted
Development and the Right to Cultural Autonomy of Latvia’s Nationalities
and Ethnic Groups was adopted in March 1991. Existing legislation supports
development of Latvian cinematography and the Latvian National Opera, and
construction of a new National Library. The Law on Folk Art is being prepared.
Nearing completion are the law on Charities and the law on Copyrights and
Related Rights. Together, these laws create opportunities to protect ethnic
identity, intellectual freedom, and the cultural values of Latvians and
minority groups. In 1998, Cultural Capital Fund started its work.
The cultural goals and the responsibilities of the public and the state
as well as the main principles underlying the understanding of culture
are formulated in the Foundations of Latvian National Cultural Policy,
accepted by the Saeima in 1995. At the 1998 Council of Europe Cultural
Cooperation Council Meeting in Strasbourg, Latvia presented its Report
on Cultural Policy; the report specifies guidelines for continuing work
in the area of social integration, and it was positively received. The
Ministry of Culture has begun to draft a National Programme "Culture,"
which lays out the plans for cultural development up till 2010 and provides
for implementation of important events, including those which promote social
integration.
Responsibility for the formation and implementation of cultural policy
is divided among several executive level institutions (the Cabinet of Ministers,
Ministry of Culture and other ministries), local governments, businesses
(Culture Capital Fund), non-governmental organisations (Latvian Culture
Fund, creative unions) and different councils (the National Cultural Council,
the Booksellers’ Council, the Latvian Council of Museums and Libraries,
etc.). Laws, regulations and other legislation define the rights and duties
of cultural institutions. During the early 1990s, the majority of cultural
establishments gained administrative and economic independence but simultaneously
they lost much of their national and local funding. Currently, cultural
institutions are funded primarily from national and local budgets. Implementation
of individual projects is funded by the Culture Capital Fund, non-governmental
funds (the Latvian Culture Fund, the Creation Fund, and the Soros Foundation).
Private capital plays only a small role in promoting cultural |