Introduction
Chapter One: Civic Participation and Political Integration
I. Goals of Civic Participation and Political Integration
II. Overview of the Situation and Problems

1. Participation
2. Non-governmental Organisations
3. Repatriation, Migration and Co-operation with Expatriates Abroad

III. Main Directions for Action 1. Participation
2. Activities of Non-governmental Organizations in Improving the Environment
3. Repatriation, Migration and Co-operation with Expatriates Abroad Chapter Two: Social and Regional Integration of Society
I. Aims of Social and Regional Integration of Society
II. An Overview of the Situation and Problems 1. Social Integration
2. Regional Integration III. Main directions for action 1. Social integration
2. Regional Integration Chapter Three: Education, Language, and Culture
I. Aims of the Integration of Society in the Policies concerning Education, Language and Culture
II. Overview of the Situation and the Problems 1. Education
2. Language
3. Culture III. Main directions for action 1. Education
2. Language
3. Culture Chapter Four: Information
I. Goals to Improve Information
II. Overview of the Situation and the Problems 1. Mass Media
2. Support for Science III. Main directions for action 1. Mass media
2. Directions of Research Work Chapter Five: Mechanisms for Implementation
I. Aims
II. Overview of Situation and Problems
III Main Directions for Action
Conclusion
 

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Eight years have now passed since Latvia regained independence. Those years have been tense and full of change. In the course of time, memories of life under the Soviet regime have faded. The younger generation has learned about the recent past only from history books and through the memories of older generations.

Nevertheless, the past has not disappeared without a trace. In reality, the period of independence has still been too short for Latvia to free itself of the effects of fifty years of totalitarianism and occupation. Institutions of state authority are mistrusted and people often feel alienated from them. While a lack of respect towards law and order is a social consequence of totalitarian rule, civic security is slowly developing in Latvia. Latvia has inherited more than half a million Soviet era immigrants and their descendants, many of whom have not yet become integrated into the Latvian cultural and linguistic environment, and thus do not feel connected to the Latvian state. This disconnect also exists to some degree among Latvian citizens.

National development may be significantly hindered if alienation persists between the individual and the state, between different parts of society, and between the society and the state. Integration of society, therefore, has become a matter of urgent necessity.

The Need for a National Programme on Integration of Society Latvia’s future development requires a rational, politically balanced and financially secure national program for the integration of society. Both in domestic politics and foreign relations, the current situation demands that the government and the society pay closer attention to the integration process than has previously been the case. The previous, often ad hoc approach to integration must be replaced by a goal-oriented national political strategy. The national strategy should be based on:

• a comprehensive conception of how society will be integrated;



• a detailed programme for the integration of society;



• institutional restructuring;



• adequate funding.

Social integration and civic participation are part of the process, which will shape the future of Latvia. Changes of the attitude in residents toward the state and toward one another are foreseen in the context of this process.

The goal of integration is to form a democratic, consolidated civil society, founded on shared basic values. An independent and democratic Latvian state is one of these fundamental values.

Only a democratic and stable state can provide access to a contemporary standard of living found today in modern Europe and guarantee welfare, education, security and favourable relations between minorities and the principle national group.

The task of integration is to facilitate an understanding of the future in all dependable and loyal Latvian residents, and simultaneously to promote an understanding among all residents that living together in one state is necessary, that only together can we improve prosperity and security, and that each person must contribute his knowledge, initiative, and good intentions to the development of Latvian society.

Integration means broadening opportunities and mutual enrichment. It is better to know several languages than to know only one. Experiencing several cultural environments offers a better perspective than being confined to only one. The integration process reinforces common values, interests, and knowledge both at the individual level and within society as a whole.

The integration of society includes processes that occur in various spheres - political, judicial, social, educational, cultural - to mention a few. Alongside political integration, social integration plays an important role.

Integration is taking place when all Latvian residents are actively involved in social life in Latvia. An integrated civic society is one where non-Latvians have a command of Latvian language, having overcome alienation from Latvian cultural values, and are involved in realising the common goals of Latvian society; and where non-Latvians have the right to preserve their native language and culture.

Integration is founded on these basic postulates:

• Latvia's return to independence must be made irreversible. All of the main political, judicial, economic and cultural expressions of the integration process are based on this conclusion. The development of the independent Latvian state and the integration of society are united and mutually-reinforcing processes;



• global experience bears witness to the fact that divisions in society threaten the fundamental unity of the state. The state is the main guarantor of progress for the Latvian people and minorities residing in Latvia; a threat to the state is a threat to Latvian society and to all the people living in Latvia;



• internationally recognised human rights, and among them, respect for the right of a people to self-determination, is a significant instrument for the consolidation and development of Latvian society;



• Latvia has never been an ethnically homogenous nation. Society must take into account the current situation and future prospects. Among citizens of the former USSR, who are not citizens of any other state but reside in Latvia (and therefore are appropriately referred to as non-citizens), few wish to emigrate;



• Latvia is a national and democratic state in which every resident has the right to preserve his or her own national identity. The integration programme will involve the preparation of specific mechanisms guaranteeing the right of the Latvian people to self-determination and the right of minorities to cultural autonomy and the assurance of the fulfilment of cultural autonomy.



• on the psychological level, integration is the ability to trust. Trust in the society develops only when each member in the integration process feels safe and protected. For Latvians this means guaranteed security for their traditions, lifestyle, their identity as Latvians and sustainable cultural development. For non-Latvians, trust is built up on the conviction that it is not in the interest of the Latvian state to deport them or to forcibly assimilate them, or to limit their rights;



• a successful outcome for integration efforts in Latvia depends on public support, on teachers, cultural leaders, religious representatives, and the full range of the intelligentsia. Social integration is unthinkable without the support and active participation of the political forces in Latvia. The idea of integration of society will become a social force when a majority of Latvian residents acknowledge its necessity and participate in the process.

• the formation of a two-community state; the model of "two societies in one nation"; confrontation between elements of society, segregation, marginalisation and forced assimilation;



• tendencies to ethno-federalism that would undermine the formation of a unified Latvian state;



• extremism, intolerance and national hatred.

In the 19^th century, Latvia developed into a nation formed from Latvians and Livs together with other national groups that arrived during various periods of history.

On November 18, 1918, the state of independent Latvia was proclaimed. Then, as a result of the criminal pact between Molotov and Ribbentrop signed in 1939, the independent Latvia was occupied by Soviet forces in 1940 and violently incorporated into the USSR. This fact is noted in the Declaration of the Supreme Council "On reestablishment of independence of Republic of Latvia"

(May 4, 1990) and in "Declaration on Latvia’s Occupation" adopted by the Saeima of the Republic of Latvia (August 22, 1996).

Latvia also suffered heavy losses under Nazi German occupation from 1941-1945. Fifty years of occupation deformed Latvian economic, social and cultural life; life in Latvia was conditioned by requirements of the totalitarian regime.

During these years, Latvia was dealt a heavy ethno-demographic blow from war, deportations, and repression; the Latvian population was substantially diminished as a result, both in total numbers and in proportion to the total population.

Nearly the entire existing Jewish community, which had been living in Latvia for many years, was liquidated. Many Romanies were killed.

Ethno-demographic problems have not yet been resolved. Due to the colonisation policy implemented by the USSR, the non-Latvian population increased by several hundred thousand after the Second World War. After Latvia regained independence, these residents were in a complicated position, having suddenly found themselves in a different country with a different political system.

The principal changes that have occurred in Latvia since regaining independence point to the need for Latvians and non-Latvians, citizens and non-citizens to acknowledge their new roles and opportunities in a democratic, nation state. The integration of society in many ways depends on opportunities for development extended to both Latvians and national minorities. Development means not only enjoying the right to preserve ethnic identity but also accepting Latvian as the only state language, to learn this language and to use it in public life. Both Latvians and members of national minorities must be loyal to the State of Latvia they should observe national laws, and should be ready to defend and strengthen this state.

The renewal of the State of Latvia also made Latvians again a majority at the national level. In the biggest cities, however, Latvians are still the minority, and this fact affects their perspective. Latvians frequently continue to consider themselves as a minority; they do not feel like the rulers and masters in their land. Being in the majority makes it incumbent upon Latvians to assume the responsibility both to preserve their own language and culture, and to ensure that Latvia’s political and economic development is beneficial to all residents of Latvia.

Opponents of the integration of society do not believe that it is possible to integrate non-Latvians into the national democracy. The opposition to integration is typically related to a fear of losing ethnic identity. In reality, it means that there is a lack of comprehension about integration itself. The integration of society does not provide for loss of ethnic identity. On the contrary, integration supports the development and growth of ethnic identity.

Actually there can be no alternative to the integration of society. Latvians must shed historical inferiority complexes and act with the conviction that they can control and positively influence the processes that occur in Latvia. For their part, non-Latvians must gain the conviction that they will be able to maintain their ethnic identity in Latvia and be fully empowered citizens of this nation. It is important for the non-integrated sector to shed distrust and insecurity and to discard prejudices and offensive propaganda spread by the totalitarian regime. It is important to realize that Latvia can develop into a nation that protects free development for any individual regardless of nationality.

Evaluation of the Historical Context as the Basis for IntegrationIn order to agree on Latvia’s future course, it is important to establish an objective understanding of the past. Of special significance are an understanding of Latvia's history and knowledge of the steps by which the independent republic came to be forcefully incorporated into the USSR in 1940. The Latvian people did not voluntarily choose the Soviet regime and life in a totalitarian system; this must be understood. To arrive at a common understanding on the loss of the rule of law during the Soviet era concerning deportations and all other forms of repression against the Latvian people, nationalisation of private property, forced collectivisation and industrialisation, the demographic policy. Condemnation should be based on a deep and objective understanding of historic events, so that the historical consciousness of ethnic groups, especially in the younger generation, does not become an obstacle to the integration process.

Integration - the Outline for Latvia's Future Integration is oriented toward the future, presaging the evolution and development of the State of Latvia and the society of Latvia. However, we ought to be aware that certain people, due to their background, age, educational experience, or other circumstances, will find it difficult to engage in the process of integration, and will not succeed in locating their place in a unified society.

In fact, it is indeed possible that integration will take place most smoothly among young and well-educated people, because they are more open and oriented towards democratic values.

Integration can only occur voluntarily; the role of the state is to create conditions conducive to integration. The integration process need not be advanced as a mass community integration project. Projects must be individualised and specific, suited to each person and situation. If the elderly, for example, cannot themselves enter into the integration process, they will "achieve" this by way of the younger generation, in this case maintaining their own benevolent neutrality toward the state. The integration of society will not occur merely as the result of some public relations campaign, it needs time, possibly decades. Yet even if the integration of society is a matter of generations, positive results of integration policy will become apparent in the shorter term.

Participants in the Integration Process Integration is a multi - faceted process – non-Latvians will be learning the Latvian language and overcoming their alienation from Latvian culture, but also Latvians will develop an attitude of "receptiveness" toward non-Latvians. Up till now, a point of view has predominated that integration is a concern primarily for non-Latvians. To implement a program for integration of society, Latvian attitudes and understanding should also change. Integration of society in Latvia is a partnership between persons belonging to different social groups, Latvians and non-Latvians, citizens and non-citizens, a process in which each side is actively involved.

Conditions that Facilitate Integration

• renewal of democratic institutions with power in the hands of the people of Latvia;



• progressive involvement of Latvia in the international community of democratic states based on rule of law and ensuring the observance of human rights and democratic freedoms;



• a close interdependence between security and prosperity for individual residents, and for Latvians and members of minority groups living in Latvia;



• an absence of intractable conflicts that would forestall the formation of a nationally unified, socially integrated civic community;



• the history of Latvia in itself has provided a positive experience of the development of relations between ethnic groups;



• the fact that, according to sociological studies, ethnic relations are not strained on the every-day level. There are a great variety - relations of friendship, business relations, and mixed families are common in Latvia;



• knowledge of Latvian by non-Latvians is a chief indicator of integration;



• economic growth is allowing for more attention to be focused on factors that promote integration;



• legislation has provided clear criteria for naturalisation, an important part of integration.

• common universal human and European cultural values;



• the existence of democratic state based on the rule of law;



• a common territory, where we wish to live in prosperity, harmony and security;



• the endeavour to maintain favourable relations between people of various ethnic groups;



• the desire to preserve and develop one’s ethnic and cultural identity;



• concern for environmental protection and preservation;



• endeavours to provide one’s children with good education and upbringing;



• ecumenical tendencies in religious life;



• the experience of victories and success on behalf of Latvia in sports, cultural festivals and competitions, shared by persons of differing ethnic origins.

The integration of society will not succeed if it is directed only from "the top down" without active civic participation from the grass roots level. Active civic participation in social and political life fosters the irreversibility of integration and conformity with the interests of the majority; it creates unity among the residents of Latvia and strengthens democracy. During the years of independence in Latvia, the opportunities for civic participation in state and social life have increased. However, in order to achieve more active and comprehensive participation of people in social life, it is necessary to overcome various prejudices, passiveness, and distrust of one’s own capabilities. Passive obedience to state authorities was characteristic in Soviet times. During the Soviet era, state authorities adhered to an ideology and the chances for civic participation in decision-making on different important issues were insignificant.

In today’s Latvia, in circumstances of governance in a democratic state, preconditions exist for representation of interests of all residents and groups of residents. It is only necessary to acknowledge one’s interests, find the motivation to act and to choose the most suitable form of participation. For a portion of residents, civic participation and political integration will come with an improvement of their financial situation and the accompanying sense of social security. However, economic growth alone will not secure greater participation. At the same time, it will be necessary to accomplish other tasks, which would bring residents of Latvia closer to the state.

Political integration means bringing together socio-political values, interests and goals of people. Strengthening of civic participation fosters such integration. Democratic political integration takes place on basis of a parliamentary democracy connected with values of loyalty and independence of the state. It occurs when parties represented in the Saeima (the Parliament of Latvia) and Government use and secure democratic methods in their activities, when non-governmental organisations (NGOs) develop methods for influencing decision-making which are characteristic for democracy, and when individuals acquire knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to make democracy work.

In order to foster such cohesiveness, it is necessary for the state to raise public awareness and to educate people in the nature of the political process in Latvia, in the state and its history, and in rights and the opportunities for participation. At the same time, the state should create an environment, which brings out patriotism and unlocks the potential for participation in civic society, as well as non-governmental organisations, in political parties, the election process, and the naturalisation process.

One of the most convenient ways to secure individual participation in social life is participation in non-governmental organisations. A wide network of NGOs in the state and its functions promote the formation of civic society, which strengthens both links between individuals and groups as well as links between the individual and a state organization. For the members of society, participation in the activities of non-governmental organisations, participation in political processes, and involvement in decision-making can strengthen the sense of belonging to Latvia. This sense of belonging can come about regardless of affiliation with different social, national, religious, linguistic groups, or and regardless of other differences.

Through use of modern technologies, civic participation is possible also when citizens reside outside the country. Such means should be used in order to involve Latvians and citizens of Latvia residing abroad.

Integration of society is influenced by interstate migration – emigration from Latvia and immigration into our country. The renewal of independence provided a chance for Latvians living abroad to return to their homeland – this process of repatriation process has started. People, who are returning to Latvia, shall be assisted in integration in Latvia.

Latvia is interested to keep in contact also with non-Latvians who after leaving Latvia, wish to co-operate and keep in contact with our country. In accordance with the spirit of many international human rights documents, the desire of minorities to co-operate with their ethnic homeland and their compatriots in other countries should be supported.

I. Goals of Civic Participation and Political Integration
 

• Civic participation. To increase political integration and active participation of residents of Latvia at all levels in the parliamentary process. To overcome alienation of people from state and local institutions by maintaining a dialogue between the individual, the society and the state. To increase the prestige of Latvian citizenship by creating a favourable attitude towards the process of acquiring citizenship.



• Non-governmental organisations. To promote civic participation and especially individual participation in the life of society and the state by supporting formation and activities of NGOs as well as fostering individual involvement in the activities of NGOs. To strengthen links a) between individuals and groups of society and b) links between individuals/groups of society and the state.



• Repatriation, migration and co-operation with expatriates abroad. To establish a unified system which would ease the return to his or her homeland for any Latvian or citizen of Latvia who wishes to do so and would assist in his or her integration in the society of Latvia. The establishment of a system for maintaining and strengthening co-operation with Latvians "in exile". To assist those people who, after re-establishment of independence, do not want to integrate into the society of Latvia and are considering a return to their ethnic homeland or life in another country.

Participation

Sustainability of voter participation Participation in elections is the most common form of political participation. Previous participation of people in Saeima elections has been high: 89.9% of electorate participated in the 5^th Saeima elections; 71.9% in the 6^th Saeima elections; 71.9% took part in 7^th Saeima elections. In elections to local governments, this activity has been significantly lower: 58.5% of electorate in 1994 and 56.8% of electorate in 1997.

The results of the referendum on amendments to the Citizenship Law (which took place on October 3, 1998) were interpreted as evidence of trust in persons who were not yet citizens of Latvia. The referendum facilitated a reduction of the degree of distrust in society, and therefore prepared the way for further integration of society.

It should be noted that 24% of the electorate are citizens of non-Latvian origin. The results of elections illustrate that members of this group support various parties and political unions.

Forms of Participation other than Elections According to research and sociological surveys, civic participation decreased significantly right after renewal of independence. However, in the last few years, participation has begun to gradually grow including participation in different political activities. For example, people are searching for more contacts with state officials and representatives of the mass media in order to solve political issues. They are more participating in public demonstrations and the activities of non-governmental organisations.

Alienation from the State, and Individualism in the Society According to sociological surveys, residents in Latvia are expecting a lot from the state, but, at the same time, they do not trust state institutions. They perceive them as alien and inaccessible. This distrust and alienation is partly inherited from the Soviet era; it is also connected with objective socio-economic and political difficulties after the regaining of independence. Notwithstanding changes of government and economic growth since the renewal of independence, alienation has been rather persistent. Even today, a notion of "us and them" prevails.

People in Latvia do not believe that their participation in political processes can be meaningful and they have rather low self-esteem. Surveys done by Baltic Data House (Baltijas Datu nams) in 1997 and1998 show that 66% of people in Latvia think that they do not know as much about politics as their fellow-citizens. Only 27% of people believe that public protest (for example, picketing) can influence decision-making, and only 14% say they are ready to participate in such activities. Citizens distrust members of Parliament and state institutions. Only 8% of the citizens believe that deputies they have elected will follow their pre-election promises, and only 20% trust state and local civil servants. In times of trouble, the majority of people rely only on themselves or their relatives. 40% of people believe that common interests can be defended in co-operation with others, but only 24% consider that they can trust their fellow-citizens.

Granting of Citizenship - an Important Element in the Integration of Society Citizenship is both a precondition for realisation of other political activities (rights) as well as an important legal connection between the state and individual; citizenship means that a citizen trusts his country and that the citizen also has a duty to fulfil with respect to his country. Only citizens have a right to take part in the elections and referendums.

Due to historic, political and legal reasons, Latvia can be distinguished from other European states with a large number of non-citizens; almost one fourth of residents are non-citizens. Since February 1, 1995, when the naturalisation process began up until October 1998 when referendum on amendments to the Citizenship Law took place, the naturalisation pace was very slow. In that four-year period, slightly more that 12,000 people acquired citizenship through naturalisation.

A significant obstacle for many potential candidates for citizenship is their insufficient knowledge of the Latvian language. And often naturalisation is hindered by the lack of information about the requirements set by the Citizenship Law. Many non-citizens lack motivation to become citizens or to undertake the obligations of citizenship.

After the referendum of October 1998, the number of non-citizens applying for citizenship increased. Persons willing to become citizens made 228 applications in September 1998 and 407 applications in October 1998. In November, the number of applications received by Naturalisation Board reached 1148. The biggest number of applications was received in March 1999 – 1481. From the time of the referendum till May 1999, citizenship was granted to approximately 672 persons per month. In the same period last year, about 354 applications were submitted per month and citizenship was granted to an average of 273 persons per month.

By establishing favourable attitude towards the procedure for acquiring citizenship, the prestige of Latvian citizenship is raised. With regard to naturalisation, certain problems can be identified:

• residents are not showing much interest to find out about their opportunities and rights to acquire Latvian citizenship;



• naturalisation is often interpreted and perceived only as a formal event and not linked with the whole process of developing an integrated society;



• candidates for citizenship acquire their opinions on issues related to citizenship and naturalisation from the mass media which does not always provide objective information about issues naturalisation;



• the naturalisation process in Latvia is significantly hindered by the lack of sufficient knowledge of the Latvian language. Approximately 20% of non-citizens do not have command of Latvian language, and approximately 30% have a low level of knowledge. Many non-citizens (15%-20%) indicate that in daily life they rarely hear Latvian language. This last statistic shows that this particular group of non-citizens has little chance of using and learning Latvian;



• many non-citizens lack the motivation to become citizens and take on the obligations of citizenship.

Dynamics of Development of Non-governmental Organizations The biggest wave of participation in NGOs came in the late 80s when the majority of people in Latvia joined social movements in order to foster, directly or indirectly, the renewal of independence. After 1991, such activities dramatically decreased. In 1991, 54% of the people identified themselves as members of at least one organization, religious organizations and political parties included. In 1994, that figure was 40%, in 1996 - 20%, and in 1998 - 28%. This dynamic illustrates several processes.

For example, organizations such as labor unions or Red Cross gradually ceased to exist. (At one time, people were included automatically in organisations when they started to work or study.) In addition, non-governmental organizations which were based on needs of the transition period and which depend on volunteers have started to develop only gradually. According to results of surveys, only 10% of the people can be considered as members of NGOs. In addition there is a bigger tendency among citizens than among non-citizens to join in organizations for achieving their interests.

Consolidation of NGOs The NGO Centre has functioned in Latvia since 1996. It is established with assistance of three core-donors – the government of Denmark, United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the Soros Foundation. With the assistance of the PHARE program, 11 regional NGO centers have been established (in Aluksne, Daugavpils, Liepaja, Jelgava, Tukums, Kuldiga, Talsi, Madona, Cesis, Preili and Jekabpils.) Two more NGO centres are planned: one of them in Rezekne and the other one in Ventspils.

In this manner, the network of NGO regional centers will cover the whole of Latvia and will continue to promote integration. Such centres facilitate contact among persons who share the same points of view or by helping individuals to locate like-minded people for the purpose of founding new NGOs. Regional NGO Centres provide consultations for establishing organizations as well as training in how to administer NGOs, in fund-raising, accounting, public relations, and human rights.

NGOs Promote Co-operation for achievement of common goalsNGOs are established for the sake of joining people together in achievement of common aims, the creation of common values and to enable cooperation regardless of the origin or social status of NGO members. NGOs are also organised on the principle of ethnicity in order to create an environment conducive to the preservation of ethnic identity of various nationalities living in Latvia.

In the majority of organizations, people are joining together on basis of common values for achieving common goals regardless of ethnic origin, citizenship or affiliation to any social group. In this context, philanthropic organizations should be mentioned. These organizations are active in fields such as social security, health protection, human rights and integration, environmental protection, education, entrepreneurship, sports and recreation. Associations of hunters and fisherman, vehicle owners as well as various societies and associations of entrepreneurs and other professional groups could also be mentioned.

As mentioned earlier, people are joining national cultural societies in order to preserve their ethnic identity. Such organizations exist in Latvia for Russians, Belarussians, Poles, Jews, Ukranians, Estonians, Lithuanians, and other minorities. The existence of many different kinds of societies (established for cultivation of ethnic identity) serves as a basis for recognising one’s cultural roots and to pass on cultural values to future generations. NGO groups therefore decrease the risk of assimilation for ethnic groups living in Latvia.

The results of the survey made by the NGO Centre in 1998 illustrate that the NGO environment in Latvia is tolerant and open. 75% of those polled admit that co-operation between organizations in which the majority speaks Latvian and organizations composed of minorities are desirable. 53% of the members of Latvian-speaking NGOs say they are ready to assist those who are not yet speaking Latvian in educational activities. 65% do not object to using Russian occasionally in educational seminars for NGOs. All cultural societies that were questioned confirmed their readiness to participate in seminars conducted in Latvian.

However, it should be noted that there are several NGOs with extreme nationalist orientations (both Latvian and Russian) in Latvia. Special attention should be paid to the way in which they are established and to their activities in order to ensure that the principles of freedom of association and freedom of expression do not conflict with the fundamental principles underlying the democratic state.

NGOs as Promoters of Civic Participation in State AffairsSince democratic development and economic growth is proceeding in our country, it can be estimated that more and more people will come to be involved in social activities. Furthermore, the history of Latvia indicates that the environment has been enriched by the presence of many traditions; Latvia is tolerant with respect to integration. Such an environment was already flourishing in the 19^th century. And in the 1920s, many movements and societies were founded and began active work.

NGOs have proved that they can effectively co-operate with the government institutions both on the state and local level.

• When NGOs are fulfilling the functions delegated from the state and local governments, this form of cooperation is a partnership. So far, NGOs have been most successful in social work and education where they are cooperating with the Ministry of Welfare and the Ministry of Education and Science. The development of this cooperation was fostered by the regulations adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers "Concerning the delegation of competencies of state administration to authorized institutions".



• NGOs also cooperate with government when they monitor and evaluate the work performed by state institutions. The most active NGOs in this field are working to protect human rights and the environment as well as the rights of consumers.



• Cooperation between the Government and NGOs in the process of decision-making is also important. The views of NGOs were taken into consideration when regulations of the Cabinet of Ministers "On delegation of competencies of state administration to authorized institutions" were being drafted, and when amendments to the law "Concerning public organizations and their associations" was prepared.



• The role of NGO centres should be underlined: they act as partners in coalition with government to secure the exchange of information with the regions and on various fields of activity.

Repatriation, Migration and Co-operation with Expatriates Abroad

Repatriation and Co-operation with Expatriates Abroad A significant number of Latvians are living outside Latvia. However, it is not possible to get precise information about the number of Latvians living abroad. It is estimated that about 100,000 Latvians are living in the United States of America, around 40,000 in Russia, 23,000 in Australia, 22,000 in Canada, 10,000 in the United Kingdom, 8,000 in Germany, 4,000 in Sweden and a total of around 200,000 people in other countries. Therefore, the size of the diaspora amounts to approximately one sixth the size of the population of Latvia.

Large Latvian centres have been established in many western cities, for example, in Toronto, New York City, Melbourne, Chicago, and Sydney. Thousands of Latvians are living together in these cities; this has created rather beneficial circumstances for sustaining the Latvian spirit. Latvians living outside these population centres are subject to assimilation. In all places where a large number of Latvians are living, Latvian societies have been established. These societies and congregations have special schools; studies take place on Saturdays and Sundays. Sunday schools for children have also been established in CIS states, for example, in Moscow, St.Petersburg, Magadan and Tbilisi.

The World Association of Free Latvians [PBLA] was established in 1956; it unites Latvians living in the West. Soon after Latvia’s renewal of independence, PBLA was joined with the Congress of Latvians in Russia (established in 1996). The Congress of Latvians in Russia unites all Latvian societies in the biggest cities and villages of Russia and the CIS.

During the "years of exile," Latvian organizations abroad did not have links with their ethnic homeland. Since the renewal of the State of Latvian, the situation has changed. Many Latvians living abroad showed an interest in returning to Latvia. In the Law on Repatriation adopted in 1995, it is stated that "The Republic of Latvia supports re-unification of the Latvian nation and is inviting Latvians and Liivs, who recognize their affiliation with Latvia, to return to their ethnic homeland."

In accordance with statistical data, around 800 people are returning to Latvia each year. Recently, the quantity of persons seeking re-patriation is growing and the statistics on repatriates [persons returning from exile] from different parts of the world are changing. For a while, around 80% were coming from CIS countries, with 20% from the USA, Canada, Australia, Great Britain and other Western countries. During the last few years, the repatriation figures from the East and the West are virtually identical.

The repatriation process created a requirement for a state institution that would assume responsibility for this issue. Beginning in 1991, this task was given to Repatriation Section of the Citizenship and Immigration Department (now called the Repatriation Centre of the Citizenship and Migration Board).

People who wish to return to Latvia can receive assistance also from various public organizations. In accordance with the Repatriation Law, a Repatriation Fund was established. The law also provides for use of state budget resources in establishment of the fund. Additional resources and donations may be derived from foreign as well as local legal entities and persons, as well as international organisations. For the time being, however, the fund is being created only with state budget resources. The finances of the fund are used for covering travel expenses of those seeking repatriation as well as an allowance for rental fees, Latvian language courses, and other purposes.

However, the overall rate of repatriation is low. The State of Latvia until now was able neither to provide basic assistance for persons returning to Latvia nor to encourage their return and integration in the society of Latvia. Although the Repatriation Law states that local governments should provide repatriates with a place to live in accordance with an annual quota set by the Cabinet of Ministers, the Law "Concerning Assistance of State and Local Governments in Solving the Issues Related to Apartments" states that local governments may assist (this means – they also may choose not to assist) repatriates in resolving problems related to apartment rentals. Presently repatriates can acquire a place to live in accordance with the same procedures as would apply to a citizen of Latvia, a foreigner, or a non-citizen with a permanent resident. An apartment is only guaranteed for those repatriates who have been victims of political repression, unlawfully convicted, and then "rehabilitated."

There are often also no conditions created to facilitate economic and psychological adaptation for those persons returning to Latvia. Problems of subsistence arise if the repatriate is unable to find a job; when professional re-certification is required but not easily secured; when knowledge of Latvian is insufficient; and when unemployment insurance is unavailable.

Latvians living abroad are quite interested about life in Latvia. After Latvia regained independence, Latvians in the west donated more resources to help Latvia than they expended even on sustaining local Latvian societies. But now much property is being sold, the activities of Latvian organizations are decreasing, and the average age of members is ever increasing. Assimilation reduces the number of Latvians both in the West and in the East. Schools lack teachers of Latvian language and books in the local language suitable for particular countries. Citizens of Latvia living abroad are not always able to use their right to participate in Saeima elections. Educational and cultural work with the Latvian diaspora in Russia is burdened by financial problems.

Immigration and Emigration During the Soviet era, Latvia, against the will of its people, became a destination for immigrants from the USSR. The number of immigrants dramatically decreased when the process of immigration was controlled under Latvian government laws and regulations after the renewal of independence. In 1992, the Law on Entrance and Residence of Foreigners and Stateless Persons into Republic of Latvia came into force. The Citizenship and Immigration Department of the Latvian Ministry of Interior implemented the Law.

Presently, there has been a re-orientation of the migration process in Latvia; Latvia has become a country of emigration. Beginning already in 1990, more people were leaving Latvia than arriving. Emigration is mostly in the eastern direction. The largest number of emigrants is of Russian, Ukrainian, Belarussian, and Jewish origin.

The problems connected with migration are gradually being solved in accordance with international agreements. In 1993, the Latvian and Russian governments signed an agreement on regulation of the migration process and the protection of rights of migrants; the agreement was ratified by the Parliaments of both countries. In accordance with this agreement, the Embassy of the Russian Federation in Latvia opened the Federal Migration Agency (FMA) of the Russian Federation; the FMA assists migrants willing to leave for Russia. In 1998, an agreement was signed between FMA and the Latvian branch of the Helsinki Office of International Migration Organization on provision of material assistance to poor families, single mothers, pensioners, disabled and other poor migrants.

In 1999, the Cabinet of Ministers of Latvia adopted regulation No. 160 "Concerning the procedure by which migrants are provided with compensation for travel expenses". These regulations will be enacted on January 1, 2000.

Public organizations, which have tried to assist migrants to the East, have not been successful. The emigration process eastward is still very spontaneous. Due to the above-mentioned circumstances, the number of people who would like to leave is bigger than the number who have left. Many poor and elderly non-citizens are unable to return to their homeland even if they so desired. This issue, however, must be investigated further; not enough research has been done.

The demographic crisis is continuing in Latvia, and the interest in economic development means emigration of loyal residents from Latvia is not encouraged.

III. Main Directions for Action

Participation

Dialogue between the Individual and the State In order to overcome alienation, the activities of the state institutions and local governments should become as transparent and open as possible. The necessity and substance of the decisions adopted should be explained in a more active and timely manner before the final decision is made so as to avoid misunderstandings and decrease the possibility for unpredictable and uncontrolled reactions. Direct confrontation between society and the state in solving important questions does not facilitate dialogue. Confrontation diminishes the trust in state institutions and stimulates alienation.

To provide information about the activities of state institutions in timely and regular manner is not only the task for journalists. Information about government activities should be provided by the state institutions themselves. The work of the institutions will be more effective if they are dealing with an informed public. Public access to information, therefore, ought to be ensured as well as participation in discussions of government decisions before those decisions are made.

In order to be effective in providing information, the program "Link with the Citizen" should be evaluated; it should be revised or decentralized mechanisms should be created for development of this function in the state institutions. Alienation from the state is also enforced by the fact that people lack information about their rights and opportunities, to use their rights and freedoms in the private and public spheres.

Citizenship and Naturalization It is necessary to work out and to implement a wide ranging complex of events to inform the general public and to promote the prestige of citizenship in order to achieve a positive change in the psychological attitude concerning issues related to citizenship and naturalization.

• The general public should be informed about issues related to citizenship and integration of society, about European Union citizenship and about the rights and obligations of citizens. The Information Centre of the Naturalization Board should create a database for educating and informing society, for advising the public, and engaging in activities supporting a positive orientation toward naturalization and the integration of society. This should be done by organizing different events where citizenship is popularized; by promoting activities which are connected with process of integration and naturalization; and by increasing the number of persons who are acquiring citizenship through naturalization procedure thereby increasing the proportion of citizens in the country.



• A unified and standardised system should be prepared. The system would assist non-Latvians as well as repatriates, who do not have command of Latvian language, to learn Latvian language and the basics of the history of Latvia in each administrative territory. At the same time it would serve as civic education program for adults. During implementation of these events, the Naturalization Board, the Ministry of Education and Science, the Latvian Folk School, adult education centres, the Citizenship and Migration Board and others should act as partners. The target groups for these events are: residents who are preparing for naturalization; citizens who do not know Latvian; repatriates (especially from the East); or any resident of Latvia who has an interest about the history of Latvia, legal issues, civic society, etc.



• In order to inform the society, it would be beneficial to make a series of broadcasts on state and regional stations as well as to encourage events in auditoriums. Involving participants in competitions during the broadcasts to collect the views and knowledge of voters about popular issues could do this.

Activities of Non-governmental Organizations in Improving the Environment

Legislation Development of legislation, which would contribute to the development of NGOs and their financial sustainability, should be promoted. Presently, the legislation in force, which regulates activities of NGOs, does not create significant obstacles for establishment of organizations and their activities. However, it also does not further their development. Restrictions on economic activities of NGOs, which do not allow them to acquire resources for achieving their aims, still exist in the Law on Public Organizations and their Associations.

Charity and Philanthropy Strengthening of charity and philanthropy should be supported. Most of the income of NGOs in Latvia consists of donations from international donors – the Soros Foundation, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the EU’s PHARE program, the Baltic American partnership program, and others.

State financing for NGO projects is available through the Capital Fund for Culture and the Environmental Protection Fund. A Law on Funds should be prepared; such a law will promote the consolidation of financial resources to achieve the priority goals of society. The Law on Charity has not been passed either; this law would identify the most important social spheres. Persons and companies donating to these spheres would receive discounts on taxes.

Co-operation between the State and Local Governments, Entrepreneurs and NGOs Co-operation between the state and local governments, entrepreneurs, and NGOs should be encouraged. There is evidence of good cooperation between local governments and NGOs in the regions, when they are making agreements on various discount arrangements in order to secure the work of the organizations. This cooperation should be widened, and entrepreneurs should be involved.

Delegation of Functions to Non-governmental Organizations The assignment of state and local government functions to non-governmental organizations should be promoted. Principles of equality and public competition should be taken into account. The Ministry of Welfare and the Ministry of Education and Science already practice delegation of functions with the provision of adequate financing. However, the majority of state institutions lack the understanding about this mechanism and it is not practiced. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct educational activities for these institutions and NGOs within the delegation of functions.

State policy for the integration of society should provide for intensive cooperation with NGO centres, supporting them and promoting the development of NGOs.

Repatriation, Migration and Co-operation with Expatriates Abroad

Support for Repatriates Who are Moving Back to Live Permanently in Latvia. It is necessary to ensure psychological, social and financial support for repatriates in order to favor their permanent return and integration into the society of Latvia. An integration system for repatriates should be established. It will help to solve different issues related to repatriation and integration.

In order to create the integration system for repatriates and immigrants that enter Latvia legally, cooperation must be developed between Ministries of Interior, Justice, Finance, Education and Science, Welfare, Culture and others, as well as local governments and NGOs.

A database should be created with information on those who are planning to move back to Latvia. Regular contacts should be maintained with prospective repatriates in order to prepare in a timely manner for their integration into the society of Latvia. Regular research should be made about integration and adaptation in Latvia of those repatriates and immigrants who arrived after renewal of independence.

Support for Persons who want to Emigrate from Latvia Latvia, in cooperation with the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus, and other countries should create conditions, which would facilitate emigration for those people who wish to return to their homeland, but, for whatever reason, are unable to do so. It is necessary to work out and to adopt appropriate legislation to address the following issues:

• finding out which people wish to emigrate from Latvia;



• commencing intergovernmental negotiations with the states which will be a destination for emigrants concerning support to be provided;



• encouraging the interest of NGOs and international organizations to find solutions to the problems of emigrants;



• solving financial issues related to emigration by giving support to poor emigrants.

Co-operation with Expatriates Abroad A concrete plan of events should be prepared for maintenance and development of contacts with foreign Latvians, for the preservation and support of their communities, and for promotion of repatriation process. Foreign Latvians are valuable assistants in developing Latvia’s image and in establishing contacts with the society and government of the country where they reside.

NGOs and local governments should participate actively in cooperation with foreign Latvians.

The United Nations Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development, signed by 116 countries including Latvia in 1995, proclaims that the significance of social development and welfare of all people and the achievement of this goal, must be a top priority.

It is in the interests of development of Latvia as a nation that the state grant equal opportunities to all residents with regard to work, income, social and cultural life. This society should be based on respect for human rights and freedoms, cultural and religious differences, and observance of social justice. Special attention should be paid to diminish the risk of social exclusion, and to demographically endangered groups in society. The emergence of disloyal residents within any region of the state is unacceptable.
 

I. Aims of Social and Regional Integration of Society
 

• Social integration. To create a society with equal opportunities for all. To extend the possibilities for social participation to all individuals and groups of residents. To secure equal opportunities for members of society to gain access to resources of the society and to live life to the fullest. To promote formation of a middle-class.



• Regional integration To achieve conditions for life and work in all regions of the state which are as balanced as possible. To reduce and prevent unfavourable regional differences by promoting preservation of beneficial environmental differences and the preservation of cultural differences. To encourage steady naturalization in all regions and to encourage closer integration and consolidation of citizens of non-Latvian origin with Latvian society.

Social Integration
Economic growth is not always directly proportional to social and human development, particularly in many of the transition countries. Therefore, increasing attention should be paid to the structure and quality of growth in order to promote human development and social integration, to eliminate poverty, to protect the environment, and to secure sustainable development of society.

Unequal division of benefits resulting from economic growth endangers harmonious development. An extensive or well-to-do middle class has not yet formed. The stratification and alienation of people continues.

The decrease of birth rate, establishment of families and their stability, as well as an expected reduction in life expectancy have caused demographic crises in the society. The natural increase in population is absent. This, taken together with prevalence of emigration over immigration, has led to a decrease of the number of inhabitants in the regions and in the country generally.

It can be asserted convincingly that the number and proportion of children will continue to decrease while the number of elderly will continue to increase. The number of women of childbearing age will become smaller and thus the birth rate will be even lower. The average age of inhabitants is continuing to increase. The trend toward ageing of the population encourages greater attention to adult education and re-training, health care for the elderly, and social insurance. In demographic development for the future, an ever-greater importance will be assigned to the quality of life rather than quantitative aspects of life.

Social integration is constrained by the following factors:

• poverty;



• unemployment;



• inadequate education and lack of information;



• insufficient social mobility; and



• shortcomings in the social security system.

• an increase of social polarisation caused mainly by gaps in scales of income, and widespread poverty;



• the prevalence unnatural and violent deaths;



• marginalization of individuals, families, and social groups;



• the spread of violence, also by way of the mass media;



• an increase of the number of beggars, of homeless persons and "street" children;



• the spread of alcoholism as "an escape" from long-term stress, as well as an increasing incidence of drug and substance abuse.

Poverty and Differences in Income Poverty is a main factor hindering social integration. Most "risk" factors can be related to poverty. Material welfare or the lack of it determines the quality of food, clothes, home and, therefore, also the condition of health, education as well as possibilities for social participation and social mobility.

Poverty and social alienation are closely interdependent. If there is increasing spread of poverty, social alienation is increasing as well. Unemployment and low salaries foster this. Low salaries may support stabilisation of macroeconomic situation but they have negative impact on the lifestyle, health, and social protection of people, which influences also the quality of life for the next generation. Sociological data indicate that approximately 40% of children are living in families where the average monthly income for each member of the family is less than 28 lats.

In society, where the basic needs of the majority of residents are not ensured and where the poor dominate, asocial phenomena flourish (alcoholism, drug addiction, suicides, criminality, and prostitution).

The regionalization of poverty is becoming a social problem. The relative figures of poverty in Riga and its surrounding regions are lower than the national average. Differences are determined by the place where a person is living: the bigger the city, the smaller the risk of poverty.

For several groups, the risk to be poor is higher than the average. Among these groups are households with three or more children or where the breadwinner is young, has a low level of education or is unemployed. Also households which are mainly dependent on agricultural income or social welfare payments (excluding pensions) are a risk group.

Poor families are often excluded from social contacts, from cultural events, access to good education, and quality health care. Celebrations are rare in these families and family traditions are not developing. Members of poor families have lower self-confidence; they suffer more often from depression. Inheritance of poverty from generation to generation is characteristic of these families.

Unemployment Unemployment is an obstacle to social integration, and it contributes to poverty. Latvia exhibits signs of structural unemployment; this was caused by economic changes after the renewal of independence. The demand for labour decreased after the liquidation of many enterprises. Presently, one tenth of economically active residents is registered as unemployed.

Many have no job. They may be looking for work and ready to start to work, but they have not registered themselves as unemployed. The real proportion of those economically active residents looking for job is estimated to be three times larger than those registered. The proportion of women looking for a job is higher than the proportion of men. In the cities, the proportion is higher than in the countryside.

Some, who have lost hope of finding a job and have quit looking for one, are considered to be economically inactive. One of the main reasons for unemployment is the lack of training and job experience as well as an inability to meet employer requirements. People who are inexperienced are those with only three or less years of experience or recent graduates or young people who have not completed high school.

Working class and poor residents have very low salaries. The low level of salaries is related to the low level of the minimum wage as well as the practice of paying the salary "under the table" and to the high proportion of low paying jobs especially in agriculture. Only a small percent of economically active households have a job, and when they do, the job is typically one with low wages and with low professional requirements; poor households suffer from this combination of factors.

Education, age, and gender are important determinants of success in the labour market. People with a low level of education and most young people lag behind other social groups in the labour market. Young people get lower salaries. There are fewer women employed and those whom are receive lower salaries and are hired for jobs requiring lower qualifications.

The permanently unemployeds are a specific problem. There is a large dichotomy between urban areas and countryside regarding employment. Unemployment is higher in urban areas, but, in the countryside, salaries and the quality of employment are lower and a higher proportion of jobs are part-time (seasonal).

The employment policy is implemented in a combined "package" with other activities of economic policy. Application of specific measures in such spheres as privatisation, development of small and medium sized business, promotion of entrepreneurship, export stimulation, and balancing regional development create new work places. A medium term economic strategy for Latvia would provide for the package of measures already mentioned as well as additional measures to allow for a reduction of unemployment. With such measures, unemployment could be decreased. According to the present prognoses of the Ministry of Finance the unemployment level will decrease during the time period till 2003, but will remain within the 8% limit.

Inadequate Education and Lack of Information as Factors Limiting Social Integration Access to education and information, or the lack of access determine, to a certain extent, the division of income and social exclusion including its duration and irreversibility. Today, information and education are significant factors not only in the development of technologies but also in the creation of the social hierarchy in the society. Access to information has become a precondition for mobility of certain groups of individuals and social groups.

In the 1990s, inequality in access to education and information has increased, especially for adults. An increase in the total amount of information does not exclude existence of certain groups of individuals and social groups which use information rarely or very rarely and which are not motivated to increase their knowledge, or to learn and to study.

Education is more and more connected with the social status of an individual but especially with the place of work. Depending on the place of work and duration of the contract of employment, employees have differing opportunities to acquire information and for professional development. There are better opportunities for specialists working in leading positions of state institutions and large companies, less for those who work for a limited time, and even less for temporary workers and the unemployed.

The main risks connected with education in the information society are the following:

1) lack of skills to become oriented within the flow of information and to quickly acquire needed information and evaluate its accuracy;

2) the inability to learn;

3) lack of information which promotes the link between the resident and the society, and the resident and the state, a lack of understanding about human rights, obligations and opportunities in the society;

4) lack of education and information about self-help and the ability to survive, especially in crisis situations;

5) a disconnection of educational institutions from the necessities determined by the development of society and market demand;

6) a discrepancy of education policy with the necessities of various social groups including people with mental disabilities, people with special needs, and people in penitentiaries.

Shortcomings in the Social Security System A developed and integrated society is characterised by a rather large and stable middle class with wide horizontal and vertical opportunities for social mobility. Social mobility is defined as the change of social status of individuals and groups. During the 1990s, a decline in social status was the dominant trend. Consequently, a new social hierarchy developed, characterised by a sharp distinction between rich and poor. Isolation of segments of the society began. Families with children, young people, persons over 45 years old, women, residents with a lower level of education - general and professional - persons with health problems, various professional groups (for example, teachers, medical personnel, and engineers) were severely affected.

At a time when a very large segment of the population is moving down in the social hierarchy, both individuals and social groups have difficulties to identify with their new social status. A need arises to make a radical change in lifestyle and profession, to live within a reduced budget and appraise priorities. Under these circumstances, the decisive element is self-confidence and trust in others as well as in the support of society.

The state has accepted the principles of a social security system. It aims to secure the minimum level of social security for each resident by dividing rights and duties of the state and individual in a manner, which raises the role of individual and his or her family in social self-protection. Sometimes it leads to a misunderstanding of state policies because taking on this responsibility to ensure one’s own security is contradicted by the unequal opportunities to achieve this. An individual ought to assume responsibility for his social security. Both recipients of income for labour and beneficiaries of social insurance services are forced to ask for help under a social welfare system which aims at increasing social security and protection for those residents who find themselves in crisis situations.

The network of social security services has not yet been fully developed to cover all social risks. Several groups of residents are living virtually without income from social insurance, but the social security allowance can cover only the absolute minimum of everyday needs. In this respect, the possibilities of feeling distanced from the state and society are still persistent because of too much bureaucracy as well as the lack of resources and information.

The present social security system cannot satisfy all pressing needs of people and families in crisis situations. There are various reasons for this: too many residents have a very low income, and the category of people who need special care and social rehabilitation is relatively high. No method has been found to prevent people from occasionally falling outside the social safety net. The co-operation between state institutions, local governments, non-governmental organisations and the private sector is gaining importance in the field of social security.
 

Regional Integration
In the "Framework for Regional Development," a region is defined as "a relatively homogenous part of the territory of Latvia (a group of small rural districts or cities; a district or group of districts) which is united by certain characteristics or common problems."

The development of regional differences in Latvia is determined by historic ethnic composition (the Latgalians, the Courlanders, the Sellians, Liivs and others), historic circumstances (subordination of regions to different countries and belonging to different religious groups) and economic growth.

Especially in Latgale and the biggest cities, migration processes taking place during the period of occupation by Tsarist Russia and the Soviet Union also affected the development of regions. This is reflected in the varied nationalities of inhabitants in the regions. Also religious creeds vary considerably from region to region in Latvia. Protestants (including Lutherans, Baptists, Seventh Day Adventists, and Methodists) live mainly in Kurzeme, Zemgale, and Vidzeme, while Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Old Orthodox live in Latgale. There is still an Eastern Orthodox Latvian community in Vidzeme.

There are significant differences in opportunities with respect to standard of living in the regions of Latvia. These are reflected in irregular economic growth and economic activity between the territories, different rates of employment and unemployment, the income level of residents, and determining factors in social and cultural life.

However, not all the regional differences should be considered a disadvantage. Differences of Latvian culture, language, traditions in different regions should be considered a kind of good fortune for our nation. The Latgalians, the Liivs and the Russian Old Orthodox of Latgale all possess unique identities, which should be treasured.

Regional Integration of Non-citizens Around 80% of all non-citizens are living in large cities – in Riga, Liepaja, Ventspils, Daugavpils, Rezekne, Jelgava, Jurmala and the area of Riga. These were the cities most affected by Soviet era immigration. Nevertheless, a large proportion of inhabitants of Slavic origin live in Latgale and most of them are citizens of Latvia. In contrast to the countryside and towns, where non-Latvians are integrating into Latvian society, non-Latvian communities (primarily residents of Slavic origin) in the large cities have limited contacts with the Latvian community or with media in Latvian language. Relatively closed non-Latvian communities outside bigger cities have developed in several countryside regions of Latgale. The most important promoter of integration in these situations could be schools, which bring pupils of other nationalities closer to Latvian language and culture.

Other minorities living in Latvia are concentrated in certain regions (Lithuanians near the border of Lithuania, Roma in Kurzeme, and Poles in Latgale). The level of integration of Lithuanians, Roma, and Poles is much higher than that of residents with Russian, Belarussian and Ukrainian origin.

Economics and the Social Sphere Transition to a market economy, the renewal of property rights and privatisation is connected with deep changes in economic structure. These changes have strongly impacted the regions of Latvia.

The most important reason for uneven economic development in the regions is the greater distance to markets and freeways as well as related communication and transport costs, different levels of infrastructure development, different levels of economic life, the heritage of the command economy, the demographic structure, and the level of education of inhabitants.

Developed infrastructure and intellectual resources, and financial potential as well as opportunities to take advantage of them are presently concentrated in Riga and in the biggest cities of Latvia. As a consequence, there is a disproportion between the pace and the opportunities for development in the biggest cities and rural regions. This is reflected in the level of unemployment and income, gross national product per resident and investment. Although, usually Latgale is mentioned as the largest region suffering economic depression, other regions in the countryside are also experiencing economic difficulties, especially Selia, Vidzeme, and several places in Zemgale and Kurzeme.

Effective, competitive rural farms are continuing to be established in Latvia, and the land cultivated by such farms is expanding. Development of agricultural production is inevitably lowering the number of agricultural labourers. It will not be possible for everybody living in the countryside to find a job in agriculture in the future. Therefore it is especially important to connect state regulatory measures and state policy with direct support to changes in the rural economic structure, namely, to extend job opportunities for residents in the countryside and small towns.

The previous measures of the regional policy implementation are insufficient when compared to the remarkable changes in the structure of national economy during the last ten years. On the other hand when the options of the regions are considered, strong regional structures that should develop the processes "from the bottom" are lacking. As a result the negative differences still intensify. Due to the migration of labour and capital to the more developed regions of country, the less developed regions are not able to concentrate the local human and technical resources by themselves for the use and development of the advantages of a region.

Psychological Aspects Surveys highlight not only serious economic and social problems but also psychological problems in the Latvian countryside and small towns. People have difficulties adapting to new circumstances; many are incapable of making the change from a "half-natural" way of farming. In this way, the vicious circle of poverty has come into play. Low income means low savings and low spending. Capital investment is low. Education is low. Productivity is low. And, in such circumstances, the income levels remain correspondingly low.

The Latvian intelligentsia, especially writers, during Soviet occupation idealised life in the countryside, because at that time the countryside was associated with the preservation of the Latvian identity. The regaining of countryside property had a direct emotional and ethical foundation, but no economic foundation. In a segment of society, an opinion that agriculture is the answer remains widespread, and since Latvians are most often involved in agriculture, there is a stereotype that agriculture is more appropriate and suitable for Latvians than for non-Latvians. In this way, sometimes a dichotomy is evident between rural areas and cities in the ethnic dimension. Such a perspective works against the integration process.

Possible Threats Each country has conditions, which make certain regions more competitive than others. Therefore, notwithstanding diligent work to overcome regional differences, regional problems exist in all countries.

Non-citizens and Latvian citizens of non-Latvian origin inhabit the economically successful city areas in Latvia, whereas in rural areas, which are economically depressed, more Latvians are living. Many non-Latvian citizens also live in Latgale. The economic relationship between the countryside and cities can develop in the future as a relationship between the "Latvian" countryside and "non-Latvian" cities including ethnic and political confrontation related to this problem.

The spheres of the Latvian economy still differ nationally in regard to the structure of employment. A significant number of workers are employed in the agricultural sector, and most of them are Latvians. The consequences of a professional structure cultivated during the years of occupation, when Latvians were forced out of such important economic spheres as railway, shipping and aviation, can still be felt. Also, in the Soviet era educational system, studies for these particular professions were offered only in Russian. Since regaining independence, the disproportions have gradually begun to disappear.
 

III. Main directions for action

Social integration

Promoting Employment For implementation of Latvia's medium term economic strategy and to facilitate EU accession, it is necessary to foster employment in accordance with tasks and goals included in the framework document "On the Promotion of Employment in Latvia." Special attention should be focused on solving the problem of the long-term unemployed, youth unemployment, and employment for women. An environment must be created that fosters small-and-medium sized business so that the number of well-paid jobs increases.

Limiting Poverty Poverty should be limited in accordance with the framework document "Recommendations for the Purpose of Reducing Poverty" and in accordance with the conceptual issues of stabilisation of wages for needy residents.

• Equal pay for equal work is the principle, which should be applied.



• To raise the minimum wages on a regular basis and thereby maintain it at subsistence level.



• The roles of "social partners" and the labour agreement should be strengthened.



• To elaborate administration of social tax and other taxes.

• To strengthen the link between education and labour market.



• To promote lifelong education for the disadvantaged, including adult education.



• The development of professional education should be tied to the requirements of the labour market.

• To develop and elaborate a national programme, "Residents of Latvia," and a programme which contributes to the promotion of demographic policy in the country.



• To strengthen families by ensuring them greater support in accordance with the goals and tasks of the framework document "State Support for Families."



• To improve the system of social welfare assistance to families with children, by bringing allowances closer to the minimum wage.



• To promote development of organisations for family recreation and tourism which render special attention to families with children.



• To foster dialogue between the generations by promoting proportional investment to all age groups thereby facilitating creation of harmonious society.

• To increase the role of local governments, non-governmental organisations and the private sector when tackling social problems.



• To provide social services closer to the places of residence.



• To observe the principles of timeliness and accessibility of these services. To improve administration of social services, by reducing bureaucratic "red tape."

After the establishment of the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development in 1993, Latvia started to work on a purposeful policy toward the regions and its implementation. In 1996, the framework document for Regional development and the Project for Promotion of Regional Economic Development were completed. In 1998, the Cabinet of Ministers accepted the Program for Rural Development. In order to implement concrete, state-supported development projects in the specific state regions (districts and villages) the law "On regions that should be specially supported" was passed in the Saeima in 1997 and the corresponding rules of Cabinet of Ministers have been adopted for implementing this law. The regions qualifying for a special support have been identified, the Regional Development Council has been set up and commenced its work. The Regional Fund and its executive body have been established (a non-profit state enterprise provides financial support for the specific development projects of local governments and business).

In order to decrease regional differences, co-ordinated and purposeful action by the state and local governments is required. When needed, non-governmental organisations and international assistance should be sought for this work. In accordance with the framework document on regional development, the Program for Latvian Rural Development, the Strategic Program for Educational Development and other documents, the most important directions for development policy of Latvian regions are as follows:

• purposeful investments in the development of infrastructure, thus promoting private investment and raising the value of property in the regions; harmonisation of state investment programmes with the aims of regional development policy;



• connecting market regulations (for example, subsidies to agriculture and public transport) with direct support for change of the economic structure and economic diversification in rural areas. For rural development, the creation of non-agricultural work places producing products with a higher added value should be accented;



• supporting re-qualification of the workforce in accordance with structural changes of economy and adult educational centres;



• development of rural and small town schools and regional universities and development of the student credit system such that studies could be made accessible to every young person in Latvia irrespective of the wealth of their parents;



• elaboration and extension of a network which includes entrepreneurship support centres, agricultural consultation centres, adult education centres;



• development of new "cutting edge" means for promotion of business in Latvia including innovation centres, technological parks, and "business incubators;"



• in response to the economic depression of regions near the border, to promote the implementation of interstate projects for development of infrastructure and to promote co-operation of areas near the border;



• creation and implementation of the program for support of Latvian education in the region of Latgale;



• promotion of state and local government support for preservation and development of the unique cultural identity of regions including Latgalian, Sellian and other cultural activities as well as the cultural support program, "Liivs in Latvia;"



• elaboration of integration programs of society specially-tailored for the biggest cities of Latvia;



• fostering regional mobility of the workforce through development of modes of transport including the public transport system;



• development of the real estate market and the market for apartment rentals;



• dissemination of information about job opportunities;



• the elimination of bureaucratic obstacles (for example, in the registration system for a place of residence).



• to speed up privatisation of flats and registration of properties in Land Register in order to increase liquidity of real estate market.

The educational system plays an important role in influencing the development of an awareness of social values and inheritance of those values. Only a unified education system can ensure the development of Latvian society as a civic society with common values and responsibilities.

In implementation of the integration process of society, children and young people make up the most important target group. However, the level of democratic and political education and command of Latvian language is a determinant in the integration of adults as well. Therefore, the Latvian educational system becomes the most important driving force of the integration process. The educational system must ensure the learning and inheritance of human and specifically Latvian values, and the opportunities to preserve inter-cultural education and the cultural identity of minorities.

A common language is essential for successful integration of society and for creation and understanding of a common system of values. In 1998, the Constitution (Satversme) of the Republic of Latvia was amended with an article stating that Latvian language is the official language in Latvia. An official language is both the symbol of the state and an instrument for integration of society. Learning and usage of Latvian language is one of the main factors, which ensures the stability of a multinational society.

However, due to Latvia’s historic heritage, the status of the Latvian language is still not secured. Therefore, special attention should be paid to Latvian language development while respecting the rights of minorities to develop and preserve their language and culture as basis of their identity.

Culture is a condition for development of a humane, creatively active, self-confident national character. Understanding of all groups of society about cultural values of the Latvian nation as well as the cultures of minority groups is an important part of the integration process of society. In order to promote the development of Latvian culture and minority cultures, a unified cultural environment must be created and the cultural dialogue ought to be expanded during the process of integration.

I. Aims of the Integration of Society in the Policies concerning Education, Language and Culture

Education

• To ensure that the Latvian language is learned sufficiently by all residents of Latvia, but especially so that the younger generation is able to use it freely as a means of communication;



• to establish the educational system as a main instrument for development of an awareness of the values of tolerance and civic society;



• development of an awareness of the political culture of the younger generation;



• to ensure elaboration and implementation of minority educational programs which correspond to the above-mentioned aims while at the same time promoting preservation of identity among minorities and their integration into Latvian society.

• To establish a stable society which shares a common official language – the Latvian language – and to ensure opportunities to use the language in the public sphere throughout the country while at the same time supporting minorities in the cultivation of their languages in harmony with the law.

• To ensure preservation and development of cultural values;



• to promote dialogue between the cultures;



• to guarantee the rights of individuals to freedom of expression and to protect and to develop their own ethnic, cultural and religious identity;



• to care for the preservation and development of Latvian and minority cultures and to conduct research supporting their development;



• to create a climate conducive for integration of cultural life;



• to promote understanding of Latvian cultural values for cultural values of ethnic groups residing in Latvia;



• to develop in people respect and tolerance with regard to other cultures;



• to foster participation of all residents in cultural life.

Education

The Development of Minority Education

General Education, the Institutional Network and Choice of the Language of Instruction One of the most obvious manifestations of social division is the parallel school system of Latvian and Russian language of instruction. Co-operation between Latvian and Russian language schools is developing only gradually. This separation has existed up till the present day and has been one of the factors encouraging ethnic prejudices and stereotypes. Russian language schools are gradually taking on a character of minority educational institutions. The development of minority education is hindered by insufficient knowledge of the Latvian language among teachers from minority groups (especially in schools where the language of instruction is Russian) and insufficient contact with the Latvian educational environment. Therefore, the integration of society in education is inconceivable as a one-sided process, during which only non-Latvians are learning Latvian language and studying Latvian history and culture. Integration of society in education is a process with two aspects, the Latvian and the non-Latvian, and both sides should be prepared to engage in intercultural dialogue and show the other side understanding, tolerance and cooperation.

In the beginning of the 1998-99 academic year, there were 725 schools in which Latvian was the language of instruction, 193 Russian language schools, 145 where both Latvian and Russian are spoken, and 11 other kinds schools in Latvia. The majority of non-Latvian elementary school students are attending Russian language schools. During academic year 1998-99, 119,200 elementary school students were attending these schools with 34.6% of the total number of elementary school students attending schools of local governments and the Ministry of Education and Science. Statistics show that the number of Russian language schools as well as the number of pupils attending these schools is decreasing. However, the largest proportion of Russian language schools is located in the big cities.

Minority educational institutions cover general education from pre-school to the secondary school level. Their number in each local government depends on the number of pupils whose families have chosen these education programs. After regaining independence, Jewish, Ukrainian, Estonian, Lithuanian, Belarussian, and Romany schools were established as well as six Polish schools.

Significant changes in the choice of the language for instruction take place when children begin attending school. In the academic year 1998-99, 72.1% of all first grade students started learning at Latvian language schools. Parents of non-Latvian and mixed families are choosing Latvian language schools because they are thinking about educational opportunities for their children and their competitiveness in the future.

In the academic year, 1998-99, there were 613 pre-school educational establishments (29 of them private) working in Latvia and 168 groups of schools. 72.3% of children were studying at Latvian language pre-schools, 27.2% at Russian pre-schools, 0.5% of children in others. In the 1998-99 academic year, the percentage of students that study in groups where the language of instruction and conversation is Latvian has risen 4.8% in comparison with academic year 1997-98.

Legislation In 1998, the Saeima passed the new Law on Education; in 1999, the Law on General Education and the Law on Professional Education was passed. In comparison with the previous law, the new Law on Education provides for different ways of structuring the educational system based on the principle of educational programs. The Law states that language of instruction for receiving education in Latvia is Latvian, but in addition to Latvian language other languages in education can be used in minority educational programs and in cases provided for under international agreements or special laws. The requirements set for minority education programs are included in the state standards, and the Ministry of Education and Science elaborates the models of respective programs according to educational levels. The Law on General Education provides for elementary and secondary school programs to be combined with minority education programs. In the optional part of the program, the studies connected with minority identity and integration in Latvian society are included. The Law on Education states that state and local government financing can be provided only for those private educational institutions, which implement accredited educational programs in the official language. This means also that private education institutions, which implement minority education programs, can obtain state and local government financing. However, these institutions should observe the requirements of state standards, they should be accredited, and at least 50% of the subjects on the curriculum should be taught either in Latvian, or bilingually.

The educational policy regarding minorities, which is set down in the Law on Education, is deemed acceptable by the European Union and the OSCE. The Ministry of Education and Science has established a program called "Education" which addresses the issue of integration of society.

Language of Instruction in Minority Education Programs – Bilingual Education In bilingual education, the educational process is organised such that two languages are used for instruction. As a result, the second language (in this case, Latvian) becomes a vehicle for learning.

There are about 200 models for bilingual education in the world. The most appropriate models for bilingual education in Latvia are those which allow for various modifications. In such models, children begin to learn in their native (minority) language, but the proportion of the state language is gradually increasing. Depending on a child’s proficiency with the second language, the amount of study in the second language is adapted and while at the beginning both languages are used in parallel eventually the teaching of subjects is mainly in the second language. The transition to bilingual education in minority education programs cannot be interpreted as exclusion of native language from the educational process.

In commencing with implementation of the new Law on Education, the Ministry of Education and Science has elaborated four models for minority elementary education programs. They provide for different ways to effect the transition to bilingual education depending on the choice of parents and students, language proficiency, and the ability of teachers. The models of programs offered have a character to be recommended and, after getting license from the Ministry of Education and Science, schools have the right to implement also their own educational programs. Bilingual education provides the opportunity for non-Latvians to study Latvian language and culture without loosing awareness of their ethnic origin.

The new Law on Education came into force on June 1, 1999. Starting with the academic year 1999-2000, all educational institutions, which beforehand have been called non-Latvian language schools, began to implement reforms by choosing one or more models for minority education and started the teaching at first grade in accordance with these models. The participation of democratic institutions of local governments and school councils are especially important for successful implementation of reforms, because it is the most direct way in which parents from minority groups can control the process.

In order to support bilingual education, the 1999 state budget allocates 600,000 lats for granting of allowances to bilingual teachers and teachers offering courses in Latvian in the context of minority education programs.

In accordance with data of survey performed by Baltic Data House in 1999, the reform of the educational system, in accordance with which Russian language schools are gradually becoming bilingual, is supported by 84% of all residents of Latvia. From those, whose native language is not Latvian, the reform is supported by 69% of residents.

The National Programme for Latvian Language Training (NPLLT)In July 1994, the government of Latvia began negotiations with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and requested its assistance in drafting a comprehensive Latvian language training programme for non-Latvian speaking residents. In the course of developing the programme, attention was paid to the problems that hinder Latvian fluency. Among these problems are non-Latvians’ poor integration into society, political history, the relative prestige and hierarchy of the Latvian and Russian languages, the attitudes of minority school teachers toward the Latvian language, and inadequate knowledge of Latvian by the teachers at the schools of minorities. Underlying the programme are several fundamental conclusions that characterise the approach to this problem:

• the need to change the way in which Latvian language is taught;



• the need to introduce a new subject - Latvian as a second language - abandoning the old methodology for teaching Latvian which was based mainly on teaching it as the native language;



• the need to recognise the needs of the target group,



• the need for training on language usage, rather than study of literature.

The State Language Proficiency of Educators Latvian language skills, along with the overall preparation and motivation of teachers play a decisive role in successful implementation of language policy in education. In 1998-99, 28,900 teachers were employed in general education institutions. 16,900 worked at Latvian language schools, 7,700 at Russian schools, and 4,200 at schools with classes in both Latvian and Russian, 148 in other minority schools.

The Ministry of Education and Science passed the rule "On certification of the state language proficiency of teachers" (1996). This document specifies that the level of state language proficiency for teachers of all education institutions who have not been educated in Latvian should have a high degree of fluency ("the third") in Latvian. During implementation of this rule, 559 teachers successfully passed the official language proficiency test; several teachers received an extension. 89 teachers were dismissed. Cases where it is suspected that state language proficiency certificates may have been forged are being considered separately.

Curriculum and Evaluation of Studies Regardless of the language of instruction, the curriculum is the same for the whole educational system. In addition to compulsory courses (history and geography) in elementary and secondary schools for minorities, courses on ethno-culture, national traditions, and history complement the minority curriculum. The curriculum includes also the native language of minorities, and the part of the courses connected with national identity is taught in the native language.

The transition to a centralised system of examinations for students graduating from secondary schools took place in 1995. The introduction of centralised Latvian language exam in minority secondary schools is continuing. Centralised exams will also be gradually implemented for Latvian as the second language for students graduating from minority elementary schools. A centralised test for history and civics will be conducted in both Latvian and minority elementary school programs.

In the secondary school social studies units, traditional history has been supplemented with such subjects as basic economics, ethics, history of religion, politics and rights, and history of culture. Under the new programme, the secondary school curricula will be expanded to include social science and economics programmes, thereby allowing students to pursue more advanced studies in the social studies area. However, the development of social studies curricula has been rather spontaneous and affected by different projects and activities of interest groups, but sometimes even as a result of pressure. A unified and general approach is missing with respect to social studies and certain subjects overlap. The absence of developed civic education is a cause for the political passivity of many young people and for a low level of civic awareness.

Improvements made in the history curriculum in the years immediately following the return to independence were geared mainly toward reforms in ideology; less attention was paid to changes in methodology. It was only in 1998 that educational standards for history began to support a new approach in which study of mere facts were no longer considered the goal but only a means for cultivating aptitude. Teaching of the controversial issues of history is not resolved yet, and each separate school freely and subjectively interprets these questions. Therefore at the end of the 9^th and 12^th grades the compulsory examination in history of Latvia should be taken.

Civic Education Along with the development of social studies units, a significant amount of the work in shaping civic consciousness and promotion of social integration is accomplished in extracurricular activities and after-school programs including sports activities.

In the first years of independence, the national policy of de-politicising and "de-ideologising" education was primarily interpreted as a rejection of any role for schools in teaching values; and yet, school activities in the realm of civic education never ceased entirely. Organisation of social events, commemoration of national holidays, competitions, sports contests, projects and other activities depend largely on the enthusiasm of administrators and teachers and their belief in the importance of such activities. This type of work also attracts NGOs and political parties. Youth groups, girl scouts and boy scouts play a significant role in civic education. Schools could also benefit by working together with Youth Guard (Jaunsargi) and Home Guard (Zemessargi). Local governments have made significant investments in organising summer camps that are oriented towards the teaching of Latvian language.

To encourage civic education, beginning in 1997, the Ministry of Education and Science has issued guidelines for civic education activities. Included in the appendix of these guidelines are several examples of successful school projects.

However, a wide range of examples suggests the need to actively promote civic consciousness. Because teachers are already over-burdened, this job cannot be accomplished through enthusiasm alone. Without an organised and well thought-out system for counselling, it cannot be hoped that teachers alone can neutralise all the negative influences that young people encounter in daily life. National institutions, local governments and NGOs should co-operate with schools to replace stereotypes of alienation with an ethic of participation.

The Qualifications of Teachers and Social Studies Units An analysis of student history exams reveals that a solid knowledge of facts is adulterated with an inability to orient themselves within an historical context; students lack the capacity to analyse and compare various historical events and to understand historical processes. These test results mirror the preparation of teachers and the methods teachers use. This phenomenon – the lack of analytical capacity - is a common symptom in school systems of all post-Soviet countries, and an apparent legacy of the totalitarian era. Only 50% of the history teachers in Latvia have appropriate professional training in their specialities.

There is not yet any system of continuing adult education in Latvia and the opportunities for teachers in social studies and civics to update their knowledge are insufficient.

In the programs of higher education, which would correspond to educators in social sciences, a pedagogical course is not included. Thus, graduates of such programs have no certification, which allows them to work as teachers. Social studies programs in institutions of higher education, as well as training programs for teachers are of narrow specialisation; teachers of general social studies, who could teach all units of the program and develop unified concept for curricula in social sciences, have not been trained. In other fields of specialisation, programs do not clearly define what is compulsory in civics; the same problem applies to Latvian language, world history, and the history of culture. Nevertheless, teachers of all units are dealing with values and they should be competent in civics and general social sciences.

The Supply of School Books and Teaching Aids A significant factor hindering the development of social studies curricula is the lack of up-to-date teaching material and methods. Even materials prepared since independence exhibit dubious perspectives and "blank spots." The existing study materials neither provide an accurate description of the roots of Soviet communist ideology nor do they explain the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. The period after World War II is an issue, which is least elaborated. Virtually none of the existing literature describes the violent occupation of Latvia, the repression, the resistance and the dissident movement in Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Russia, and the Soviet Republics. There is hardly any material on the "socialist camp" in general. From the perspective of social integration, it would be very important to show the solidarity of the intelligentsia, to prepare appropriate teaching materials including the writings of Gunars Astra, Alexander Solzhenytsin, and Andrei Sakharov because the universal humanitarian values reflected in their works can promote the integration of society.

In school and especially in private libraries, it is typical to find that the only materials on Latvian society and history are those published in occupied Latvia. Because of insufficient funding, new books or supplemental reading materials are unavailable to teachers, students, and school libraries. The situation is particularly dramatic in Russian-language schools; in switching over to teaching of history, geography and other units in Latvian, these schools require entire new sets of books in Latvian. From the point of view of integration, the import of books published in Russia is not acceptable on principle; such books are oriented toward another society and another nation.

Unfortunately, the literature published during the period of Latvian independence is also unsatisfactory from the point of view of social integration and education in values. An analysis of teaching materials published in Latvian and Russian illustrates that these books have an ethnocentric orientation and consequently they do not highlight an image of Latvia as a modern culturally diverse country, where not only Latvians but also minorities are living.

Religious Education Religion could play a special role in the social integration process as a factor that strongly influences the shaping of value systems. Various religious groups have always co-existed in Latvia. In 1996, the Saeima ratified amendments to the Law on Religious Organizations, which stated that traditional confessions have the right to conduct religious studies in schools. Still these curricula should recognise the interests of social integration by accenting common Christian values, thereby forming a tolerant attitude toward all confessions and minimising religious differences within society. At the secondary school level, the religious education should promote understanding about religions and contemporary religious movements without limiting itself to Christianity. In co-operation with traditional Christian confessions, the work on inter-confessional Christian study program has started.

In total, the number of students acquiring professional education in Latvian is increasing. In more than half of the professional education institutions, some of the general courses and special courses (professional) for Russian groups are taught in Latvian. The number of courses taught in Latvian is gradually increasing. Professional educational establishments are preparing study materials and dictionaries in Latvian.

The following factors most hinder the implementation of a professional educational program in Latvian:

• The fluency in Latvian of students who have finished Russian primary schools does not meet the primary school standards.



• There is lack of specialised teaching material printed in Latvian.



• There are not enough teachers who could teach specialised subjects in Latvian.

According to Central Statistical Bureau data, enrolment in the adult education program is over 100,000 and growing. The highest demand is for adult professional development programs. Of the total adult education programs, 10% are language programs; of those, Latvian courses comprise 35% (in comparison, English courses make up 55%). Latvian language courses for adults are offered by educational institutions, state, local, and private enterprises, and public corporations, which happen to be offering training as one of their activities. Since the Latvian language training is mostly available at a cost, many people are unable to afford the tuition.

To foster a positive attitude toward the study of Latvian, the Latvian Folk School, founded in April 1998 and its 9 branches have begun testing an experimental program. The Latvian Folk School in conjunction with the Naturalisation Board and the Ministry of Education and Science established the Department for Promotion of Social Integration. The goal of the Department is to help non-Latvians prepare for the naturalisation process. The Department for Promotion of Social Integration has adopted an approach to teaching Latvian which combines language training with history, culture, and issues of daily life creating a casual environment during exercises. This course will prepare students to pass a Latvian language exam in line with the requirements for citizenship.

The Latvian Association for Adult Education by way of courses, seminars, and discussion clubs explores the theme "Civic Education in Democratisation." Teaching materials are being developed on this theme. In 1996, the State Language Centre, along with the Ministry of Education and Science, the Latvian Association for Adult Education, and the Knowledge Society (Zinibu biedriba) implemented an EU-sponsored project, "Teaching Latvian to non-Latvians;" this has resulted in a programme and teaching materials for Latvian instruction. Adult education projects are also being implemented under the National Programme for Latvian Language Training.

Language
The current predicament of the Latvian language reflects the complicated political, economic, ethno-demographic and psychological processes, which have taken place during the course of history in Latvia. Adhering to the ethno-demographic composition of Latvia at the end of the 20^th century, Latvian, Russian, Ukrainian, Belarussian, Polish, Lithuanian, Estonian, Roma, German, Liiv languages are spoken today in Latvia. Most of these languages are used in restricted spheres, mainly in the family or in cultural activities. Russian is the native language for many members of minority groups in Latvia. Foreign languages play an ever- increasing role in Latvia, especially English. Presently, Latvian, Russian and English are fulfilling important functions in Latvia.

The Latvian language is the official language of the Republic of Latvia. Persons, belonging to minorities, have the right to preserve and develop their language, and their special cultural and ethnic heritage.

In 1989, the Law on State Language of the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic was adopted. In 1992, amendments and additions to the Law on State Language reflected the changes in the status of Latvia. The implementation mechanism of the State Language Law of the Republic of Latvia is incorporated in several legal documents, for example, Regulations on State Language Proficiency Testing and Regulations on State Language Inspection of the Republic of Latvia. The Citizenship Law and the Law on Education affect the usage of the Latvian language. In 1999, the Saeima adopted the new Law on State Language, which was returned to the Saeima by State President for additional review [this law was finally passed on December 9, 1999].

During the last ten years, the number of residents who have no knowledge of Latvian at all has significantly decreased, and the proportion of people who can communicate in Latvian is steadily increasing. Slowly, but surely, the number of members of minority groups who speak Latvian well is on the increase.

The viewpoint of people and groups concerning language and the use of languages varies. During the last decade, the attitude of minorities toward the Latvian language has changed. Presently more than 90% of members of minority groups acknowledge that Latvian as the official language and that there is a need to know Latvian. However, around 70% of members of minority groups that participated in a recent poll still admit that Russian should have the status of official language as well. In practice, that would place one minority in a privileged position.

Prejudices and mutual distrust persist in Latvian society. Latvians have been passive in promoting Latvian language training. However, many objective and subjective factors hinder learning of Latvian language. More often respondents in opinion polls are mentioning the lack of financial means, age and the few opportunities to use Latvian. Also, in communication with Latvians, the Latvian language is not always used; Latvians often converse in Russian. The psychological barrier to speak Latvian is also emphasised.

Culture
After the renewal of independence, the cultural processes in Latvia have maintained some elements of historical continuity but have also gained new traits. Continuity can be noted in the high prestige assigned to culture and widespread popular participation in amateur cultural activities such as singing in choirs and nurturing traditional folk art forms, as well as the close ties between Latvian culture and the processes of international cultural evolution. Intellectual freedom is the hallmark of the new diversity of artistic self-expression and this includes the free development of Latvian and minority cultures. At the same time, cultural values are influenced and levelled by mass culture. Cultural infrastructure is unevenly developed as is the funding of the various spheres of culture, and many spheres of culture have not faired well under the current economic conditions.

Legislation which regulates the spheres and processes of Latvian culture has been adopted, including the work of cultural institutions, libraries, museums, archives, as well as cultural heritage, preservation of cultural values of Latvians and minorities, are adopted. The law on the Unrestricted Development and the Right to Cultural Autonomy of Latvia’s Nationalities and Ethnic Groups was adopted in March 1991. Existing legislation supports development of Latvian cinematography and the Latvian National Opera, and construction of a new National Library. The Law on Folk Art is being prepared. Nearing completion are the law on Charities and the law on Copyrights and Related Rights. Together, these laws create opportunities to protect ethnic identity, intellectual freedom, and the cultural values of Latvians and minority groups. In 1998, Cultural Capital Fund started its work.

The cultural goals and the responsibilities of the public and the state as well as the main principles underlying the understanding of culture are formulated in the Foundations of Latvian National Cultural Policy, accepted by the Saeima in 1995. At the 1998 Council of Europe Cultural Cooperation Council Meeting in Strasbourg, Latvia presented its Report on Cultural Policy; the report specifies guidelines for continuing work in the area of social integration, and it was positively received. The Ministry of Culture has begun to draft a National Programme "Culture," which lays out the plans for cultural development up till 2010 and provides for implementation of important events, including those which promote social integration.

Responsibility for the formation and implementation of cultural policy is divided among several executive level institutions (the Cabinet of Ministers, Ministry of Culture and other ministries), local governments, businesses (Culture Capital Fund), non-governmental organisations (Latvian Culture Fund, creative unions) and different councils (the National Cultural Council, the Booksellers’ Council, the Latvian Council of Museums and Libraries, etc.). Laws, regulations and other legislation define the rights and duties of cultural institutions. During the early 1990s, the majority of cultural establishments gained administrative and economic independence but simultaneously they lost much of their national and local funding. Currently, cultural institutions are funded primarily from national and local budgets. Implementation of individual projects is funded by the Culture Capital Fund, non-governmental funds (the Latvian Culture Fund, the Creation Fund, and the Soros Foundation). Private capital plays only a small role in promoting cultural